Bhikkhu Ñanamoli was
born in England in 1905 and graduated from Exeter
College, Oxford. In 1948 he came to Sri Lanka, where he
was ordained the following year at the Island Hermitage
near Dodanduwa. During his 11 years in the Sangha Ven.
Ñanamoli translated into lucid English some of the most
difficult texts of Theravada Buddhism. In 1960, on one
of his rare outings from the Hermitage, he suddenly
passed away due to heart failure.
Bhikkhu Bodhi is a
Buddhist monk of American nationality, born in New York
City in 1944. After completing a doctorate in philosophy
at Claremont Graduate School, he came to Sri Lanka in
1972, and was ordained the same year under the eminent
scholar-monk, Ven. Balangoda Ananda Maitreya. Since 1984
he has been Editor for the Buddhist Publication Society,
and its President since 1988.
* * *
Bhikkhus, just as the
dawn is the forerunner and first indication of the
rising of the sun, so is right view the forerunner and
first indication of wholesome states.
For one of right view,
bhikkhus, right intention springs up. For one of right
intention, right speech springs up. For one of right
speech, right action springs up. For one of right
action, right livelihood springs up. For one of right
livelihood, right effort springs up. For one of right
effort, right mindfulness springs up. For one of right
mindfulness, right concentration springs up. For one of
right concentration, right knowledge springs up. For one
of right knowledge, right deliverance springs up.
Anguttara Nikaya 10:121
The Sammaditthi Sutta,
the Discourse on Right View, is the ninth sutta of the
Majjhima Nikaya, the Collection of Middle Length
Discourses. Its expositor is the Venerable Sariputta
Thera, the Buddha's chief disciple and the foremost of
the Master's bhikkhu disciples in the exercise of the
faculty of wisdom. The Buddha declared that next to
himself, it was the Venerable Sariputta who excelled in
turning the incomparable Wheel of the Dhamma, in
expounding in depth and in detail the Four Noble Truths
realized with the attainment of enlightenment. In the
Sammaditthi Sutta the great disciple bears ample
testimony to the Buddha's words of praise, bequeathing
upon us a discourse that has served as a primer of
Buddhist doctrine for generations of monks in the
monasteries of South and Southeast Asia.
As its title suggests,
the subject of the Sammaditthi Sutta is right view. The
analysis of right view undertaken in the sutta brings us
to the very core of the Dhamma, since right view
constitutes the correct understanding of the central
teachings of the Buddha, the teachings which confer upon
the Buddha's doctrine its own unique and distinctive
stamp. Though the practice of right mindfulness has
rightly been extolled as the crest jewel of the Buddha's
teaching, it cannot be stressed strongly enough that the
practice of mindfulness, or any other approach to
meditation, only becomes an effective instrument of
liberation to the extent that it is founded upon and
guided by right view. Hence, to confirm the importance
of right view, the Buddha places it at the very
beginning of the Noble Eightfold Path. Elsewhere in the
Suttas the Buddha calls right view the forerunner of the
path (pubbangama), which gives direction and
efficacy to the other seven path factors.
Right view, as explained
in the commentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta, has a
variety of aspects, but it might best be considered as
twofold: conceptual right view, which is the
intellectual grasp of the principles enunciated in the
Buddha's teaching, and experiential right view, which is
the wisdom that arises by direct penetration of the
teaching. Conceptual right view, also called the right
view in conformity with the truths
(saccanulomika-sammaditthi), is a correct conceptual
understanding of the Dhamma arrived at by study of the
Buddha's teachings and deep examination of their
meaning. Such understanding, though conceptual rather
than experiential, is not dry and sterile. When rooted
in faith in the Triple Gem and driven by a keen
aspiration to realize the truth embedded in the
formulated principles of the Dhamma, it serves as a
critical phase in the development of wisdom (pañña),
for it provides the germ out of which experiential right
view gradually evolves.
Experiential right view
is the penetration of the truth of the teaching in one's
own immediate experience. Thus it is also called right
view that penetrates the truths
(saccapativedha-sammaditthi). This type of right
view is aroused by the practice of insight meditation
guided by a correct conceptual understanding of the
Dhamma. To arrive at direct penetration, one must begin
with a correct conceptual grasp of the teaching and
transform that grasp from intellectual comprehension to
direct perception by cultivating the threefold training
in morality, concentration and wisdom. If conceptual
right view van be compared to a hand, a hand that grasps
the truth by way of concepts, then experiential right
view can be compared to an eye -- the eye of wisdom that
sees directly into the true nature of existence
ordinarily hidden from us by our greed, aversion and
delusion.
The Discourse on Right
View is intended to elucidate the principles that are to
be comprehended by conceptual right view and penetrated
by experiential right view. The Venerable Sariputta
expounds these principles under sixteen headings: the
wholesome and the unwholesome, the four nutriments of
life, the Four Noble Truths, the twelve factors of
dependent arising, and the taints as the condition for
ignorance. It will be noted that from the second section
to the end of the sutta, all the expositions are framed
in accordance with the same structure, which reveals the
principle of conditionality as the scaffolding for the
entire teaching. Each phenomenon to be comprehended by
right view is expounded in terms of its individual
nature, its arising, its cessation, and the way leading
to its cessation. The grasp of this principle thus makes
it clear that any entity taken for examination is not an
isolated occurrence with its being locked up in itself,
but part of a web of conditionally arisen processes that
can be terminated by understanding and eliminating the
cause that gives it being.
The right view arrived
at by penetrating any of the sixteen subjects expounded
in the sutta is discussed in terms of two aspects, both
aspects of supramundane penetration. The first is the
initial penetration of the supramundane path that
transforms a person from a worldling (puthujjana)
into a stream-enterer (sotapanna), a noble
disciple who has entered irreversibly upon the stream to
liberation. This aspect of right view is indicated by
the words that open each section, "(one) who has perfect
confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true
Dhamma." These qualities are attributes only of the
stream-enterer and those of higher attainment along the
path. The description thus applies to the trainee
(sekha), the disciple who has entered the path but
has not yet reached its end. The words signify right
view as a transformative vision which has revealed the
ultimate truths underlying our existence, but which must
still be developed further to complete the full
transformation it is capable of effecting.
The second aspect of
supramundane right view is indicated by the closing
words of each section, from "he entirely abandons the
underlying tendency to lust" to "he here and now makes
an end of suffering." This description is fully
applicable only to the arahant, the liberated one, and
thus indicates that the right view conceptually grasped
by the wise worldling, and transformed into direct
perception with the attainment of stream-entry, reaches
its consummation with the arrival at the teaching's
final goal, the attainment of complete emancipation from
suffering.
* * *
The translation of the
Sammaditthi Sutta and its commentary presented here has
been adapted from manuscripts left behind by Bhikkhu
Ñanamoli. The translation of the sutta has been adapted
from Ven. Ñanamoli's complete translation of the
Majjhima Nikaya. The version used has been taken from
the edition of the complete Majjhima Nikaya translation
that I prepared for publication by Wisdom Publications
in the United States. This version, tentatively
scheduled for release in late 1992, employs extensive
substitution of Ven. Ñanamoli's own technical
terminology with my own preferred renderings of Pali
doctrinal terms.
The commentary to the
Sammaditthi Sutta is from the Papañcasudani, Acariya
Buddhaghosa's complete commentary (atthakatha) to
the Majjhima Nikaya. The translation of the commentary
has also been adapted from a rendering by Ven. Ñanamoli,
contained in a notebook of his that was discovered only
a few years ago at Island Hermitage. The terminology
used in the notebook version suggests that it was one of
Ven. Ñanamoli's earliest attempts at translation from
the Pali; it certainly preceded his translation of the
Visuddhimagga, The Path of Purification, first completed
at the end of 1953. In adapting the translation, I have
naturally replaced the technical terminology used in the
notebook version with that used in the sutta. In places
I also decided to translate directly from the Pali text
rather than adhere to Ven. Ñanamoli's rendering, which
sometimes tended to be literal to the point of
awkwardness. A few passages from the commentary that are
concerned solely with linguistic clarification have been
omitted from the translation.
Passages in the
commentarial section enclosed in square brackets are
taken from the subcommentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta,
by Acariya Dhammapala. Passages in parenthesis are
additions either by Ven. Ñanamoli or by myself. The
paragraph numbering of the commentarial section follows
that of the sutta. The phrases of the sutta that are
selected for comment have been set in boldface [Not in
this transcription -- JTB]. The backnotes are entirely
my own.
Bhikkhu Bodhi
Part One:
[top]
The Discourse on Right View
(Sammaditthi Sutta)
1. Thus have I heard. On
one occasion the Blessed One was living at Savatthi in
Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There the Venerable
Sariputta addressed the bhikkhus thus: "Friends,
bhikkhus." -- "Friend," they replied. The Venerable
Sariputta said this:
2. "'One of right view,
one of right view' is said, friends. In what way is a
noble disciple one of right view, whose view is
straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and
has arrived at this true Dhamma?"
"Indeed, friend, we
would come from far away to learn from the Venerable
Sariputta the meaning of this statement. It would be
good if the Venerable Sariputta would explain the
meaning of this statement. Having heard it from him, the
bhikkhus will remember it."
"Then, friends, listen
and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, friend," the
bhikkhus replied. The Venerable Sariputta said this:
(The Wholesome and the Unwholesome)
3. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands the unwholesome, the root of
the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the
wholesome, in that way he is one of right view, whose
view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the
Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
4. "And what, friends,
is the unwholesome, what is the root of the unwholesome,
what is the wholesome, what is the root of the
wholesome? Killing living beings is unwholesome; taking
what is not given is unwholesome; misconduct in sensual
pleasures is unwholesome; false speech is unwholesome;
malicious speech is unwholesome; harsh speech is
unwholesome; gossip is unwholesome; covetousness is
unwholesome; ill will is unwholesome; wrong view is
unwholesome. This is called the unwholesome.
5. "And what is the root
of the unwholesome? Greed is a root of the unwholesome;
hate is a root of the unwholesome; delusion is a root of
the unwholesome. This is called the root of the
unwholesome.
6. "And what is the
wholesome? Abstention from killing living beings is
wholesome; abstention from taking what is not given is
wholesome; abstention from misconduct in sensual
pleasures is wholesome; abstention from false speech is
wholesome; abstention from malicious speech is
wholesome; abstention from harsh speech is wholesome;
abstention from gossip is wholesome; non-covetousness is
wholesome; non-ill will is wholesome; right view is
wholesome. This is called the wholesome.
7. "And what is the root
of the wholesome? Non-greed is a root of the wholesome;
non-hate is a root of the wholesome; non-delusion is a
root of the wholesome. This is called the root of the
wholesome.
8. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood the unwholesome, the root
of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the
wholesome, he entirely abandons the underlying tendency
to lust, he abolishes the underlying tendency to
aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency to the
view and conceit 'I am,' and by abandoning ignorance and
arousing true knowledge he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect
confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
(Nutriment)
9. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
10. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands nutriment, the origin of
nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way
leading to the cessation of nutriment, in that way he is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
11. "And what is
nutriment, what is the origin of nutriment, what is the
cessation of nutriment, what is the way leading to the
cessation of nutriment? There are these four kinds of
nutriment for the maintenance of beings that already
have come to be and for the support of those seeking a
new existence. What four? They are physical food as
nutriment, gross or subtle; contact as the second;
mental volition as the third; and consciousness as the
fourth. With the arising of craving there is the arising
of nutriment. With the cessation of craving there is the
cessation of nutriment. The way leading to the cessation
of nutriment is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is,
right view, right intention, right speech, right action,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and
right concentration.
12. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood nutriment, the origin of
nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way
leading to the cessation of nutriment, he entirely
abandons the underlying tendency to greed, he abolishes
the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the
underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I am,' and
by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he
here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too
a noble disciple is one of right view, whose view is
straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and
has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(The Four Noble Truths)
13. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
14. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands suffering, the origin of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way
leading to the cessation of suffering, in that way he is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
15. "And what is
suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what is the
cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the
cessation of suffering? Birth is suffering; aging is
suffering; sickness is suffering; death is suffering;
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are
suffering; not to obtain what one wants is suffering; in
short, the five aggregates affected by clinging are
suffering. This is called suffering.
16. "And what is the
origin of suffering? It is craving, which brings renewal
of being, is accompanied by delight and lust, and
delights in this and that; that is, craving for sensual
pleasures, craving for being and craving for non-being.
This is called the origin of suffering.
17. "And what is the
cessation of suffering? It is the remainderless fading
away and ceasing, the giving up, relinquishing, letting
go and rejecting of that same craving. This is called
the cessation of suffering.
18. "And what is the way
leading to the cessation of suffering? It is just this
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration. This is called the way leading to the
cessation of suffering.
19. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood suffering, the origin of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way
leading to the cessation of suffering... he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble
disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
(Aging and Death)
20. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
21. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands aging and death, the origin
of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death,
and the way leading to the cessation of aging and death,
in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma.
22. "And what is aging
and death, what is the origin of aging and death, what
is the cessation of aging and death, what is the way
leading to the cessation of aging and death? The aging
of beings in the various orders of beings, their old
age, brokenness of teeth, grayness of hair, wrinkling of
skin, decline of life, weakness of faculties -- this is
called aging. The passing of beings out of the various
orders of beings, their passing away, dissolution,
disappearance, dying, completion of time, dissolution of
the aggregates, laying down of the body -- this is
called death. So this aging and this death are what is
called aging and death. With the arising of birth there
is the arising of aging and death. With the cessation of
birth there is the cessation of aging and death. The way
leading to the cessation of aging and death is just this
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration.
23. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood aging and death, the origin
of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death,
and the way leading to the cessation of aging and
death... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Birth)
24. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
25. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands birth, the origin of birth,
the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the
cessation of birth, in that way he is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
26. "And what is birth,
what is the origin of birth, what is the cessation of
birth, what is the way leading to the cessation of
birth? The birth of beings into the various orders of
beings, their coming to birth, precipitation [in a
womb], generation, manifestation of the aggregates,
obtaining the bases for contact -- this is called birth.
With the arising of being there is the arising of birth.
With the cessation of being there is the cessation of
birth. The way leading to the cessation of birth is just
this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration.
27. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood birth, the origin of birth,
the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the
cessation of birth... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Being)
28. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
29. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands being, the origin of being,
the cessation of being, and the way leading to the
cessation of being, in that way he is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
30. "And what is being,
what is the origin of being, what is the cessation of
being, what is the way leading to the cessation of
being? There are these three kinds of being:
sense-sphere being, fine-material being and immaterial
being. With the arising of clinging there is the arising
of being. With the cessation of clinging there is the
cessation of being. The way leading to the cessation of
being is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right
view... right concentration.
31. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood being, the origin of being,
the cessation of being, and the way leading to the
cessation of being... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Clinging)
32. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
33. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands clinging, the origin of
clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading
to the cessation of clinging, in that way he is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
34. "And what is
clinging, what is the origin of clinging, what is the
cessation of clinging, what is the way leading to the
cessation of clinging? There are these four kinds of
clinging: clinging to sensual pleasures, clinging to
views, clinging to rituals and observances, and clinging
to a doctrine of self. With the arising of craving there
is the arising of clinging. With the cessation of
craving there is the cessation of clinging. The way
leading to the cessation of clinging is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration.
35. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood clinging, the origin of
clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading
to the cessation of clinging... he here and now makes an
end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
(Craving)
36. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
37. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands craving, the origin of
craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading
to the cessation of craving, in that way he is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
38. "And what is
craving, what is the origin of craving, what is the
cessation of craving, what is the way leading to the
cessation of craving? There are these six classes of
craving: craving for forms, craving for sounds, craving
for odors, craving for flavors, craving for tangibles,
craving for mind-objects. With the arising of feeling
there is the arising of craving. With the cessation of
feeling there is the cessation of craving. The way
leading to the cessation of craving is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration.
39. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood craving, the origin of
craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading
to the cessation of craving... he here and now makes an
end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
(Feeling)
40. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
41. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands feeling, the origin of
feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading
to the cessation of feeling, in that way he is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
42. "And what is
feeling, what is the origin of feeling, what is the
cessation of feeling, what is the way leading to the
cessation of feeling? There are these six classes of
feeling: feeling born of eye-contact, feeling born of
ear-contact, feeling born of nose-contact, feeling born
of tongue-contact, feeling born of body-contact, feeling
born of mind-contact. With the arising of contact there
is the arising of feeling. With the cessation of contact
there is the cessation of feeling. The way leading to
the cessation of feeling is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
43. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood feeling, the origin of
feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading
to the cessation of feeling... he here and now makes an
end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
(Contact)
44. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
45. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands contact, the origin of
contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading
to the cessation of contact, in that way he is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
46. "And what is
contact, what is the origin of contact, what is the
cessation of contact, what is the way leading to the
cessation of contact? There are these six classes of
contact: eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-contact,
tongue-contact, body-contact, mind-contact. With the
arising of the sixfold base there is the arising of
contact. With the cessation of the sixfold base there is
the cessation of contact. The way leading to the
cessation of contact is just this Noble Eightfold Path;
that is, right view... right concentration.
47. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood contact, the origin of
contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading
to the cessation of contact... he here and now makes an
end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
(The Sixfold Base)
48. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's
words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble
disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma?" -- "There might be, friends.
49. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands the sixfold base, the origin
of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base,
and the way leading to the cessation of the sixfold
base, he is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
50. "And what is the
sixfold base, what is the origin of the sixfold base,
what is the cessation of the sixfold base, what is the
way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base? There
are these six bases: the eye-base, the ear-base, the
nose-base, the tongue-base, the body-base, the
mind-base. With the arising of mentality-materiality
there is the arising of the sixfold base. With the
cessation of mentality-materiality there is the
cessation of the sixfold base. The way leading to the
cessation of the sixfold base is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration.
51. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood the sixfold base, the
origin of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold
base, and the way leading to the cessation of the
sixfold base... he here and now makes an end of
suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Mentality-Materiality)
52. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
53. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands mentality-materiality, the
origin of mentality-materiality, the cessation of
mentality-materiality, and the way leading to the
cessation of mentality-materiality, in that way he is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
54. "And what is
mentality-materiality, what is the origin of
mentality-materiality, what is the cessation of
mentality-materiality, what is the way leading to the
cessation of mentality-materiality? Feeling, perception,
volition, contact and attention -- these are called
mentality. The four great elements and the material form
derived from the four great elements -- these are called
materiality. So this mentality and this materiality are
what is called mentality-materiality. With the arising
of consciousness there is the arising of
mentality-materiality. With the cessation of
consciousness there is the cessation of
mentality-materiality. The way leading to the cessation
of mentality-materiality is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
55. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood mentality-materiality, the
origin of mentality-materiality, the cessation of
mentality-materiality, and the way leading to the
cessation of mentality-materiality... he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble
disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
(Consciousness)
56. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
57. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands consciousness, the origin of
consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the
way leading to the cessation of consciousness, in that
way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
58. "And what is
consciousness, what is the origin of consciousness, what
is the cessation of consciousness, what is the way
leading to the cessation of consciousness? There are
these six classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness,
ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,
tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness,
mind-consciousness. With the arising of formations there
is the arising of consciousness. With the cessation of
formations there is the cessation of consciousness. The
way leading to the cessation of consciousness is just
this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right
concentration.
59. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood consciousness, the origin
of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and
the way leading to the cessation of consciousness... he
here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too
a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma."
(Formations)
60. Saying, "Good
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
61. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands formations, the origin of
formations, the cessation of formations, and the way
leading to the cessation of formations, in that way he
is one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
62. "And what are
formations, what is the origin of formations, what is
the cessation of formations, what is the way leading to
the cessation of formations? There are these three kinds
of formations: the bodily formation, the verbal
formation, the mental formation. With the arising of
ignorance there is the arising of formations. With the
cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of
formations. The way leading to the cessation of
formations is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is,
right view... right concentration.
63. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood formations, the origin of
formations, the cessation of formations, and the way
leading to the cessation of formations... he here and
now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble
disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
(Ignorance)
64. Saying, "Good
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might
be, friends.
65. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands ignorance, the origin of
ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way
leading to the cessation of ignorance, in that way he is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
66. "And what is
ignorance, what is the origin of ignorance, what is the
cessation of ignorance, what is the way leading to the
cessation of ignorance? Not knowing about suffering, not
knowing about the origin of suffering, not knowing about
the cessation of suffering, not knowing about the way
leading to the cessation of suffering -- this is called
ignorance. With the arising of the taints there is the
arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints
there is the cessation of ignorance. The way leading to
the cessation of ignorance is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
67. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood ignorance, the origin of
ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way
leading to the cessation of ignorance... he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble
disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
(Taints)
68. Saying, "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a
further question: "But, friend, might there be another
way in which a noble disciple is one of right view,
whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in
the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" --
"There might be, friends.
69. "When, friends, a
noble disciple understands the taints, the origin of the
taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading
to the cessation of the taints, in that way he is one of
right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect
confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
70. "And what are the
taints, what is the origin of the taints, what is the
cessation of the taints, what is the way leading to the
cessation of the taints? There are three taints: the
taint of sensual desire, the taint of being and the
taint of ignorance. With the arising of ignorance there
is the arising of the taints. With the cessation of
ignorance there is the cessation of the taints. The way
leading to the cessation of the taints is just this
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
71. "When a noble
disciple has thus understood the taints, the origin of
the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way
leading to the cessation of the taints, he entirely
abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes
the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the
underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I am,' and
by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he
here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too
a noble disciple is one of right view, whose view is
straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and
has arrived at this true Dhamma."
That is what the
Venerable Sariputta said. The bhikkhus were satisfied
and delighted in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
Part Two:
[top]
The Commentary to the Discourse on Right View
1. Thus have I heard:
the Sammaditthi Sutta.
2. Herein, all such
questions spoken by the Elder as " 'One of right view,
one of right view' is said, friends. In what way is a
noble disciple one of right view...?" or "And what,
friends, is the unwholesome...?" -- these are questions
showing a desire to expound. Herein, since those who
know, those who do not know, those outside the
Dispensation, those within it, those who speak by
hearsay, etc., and those who speak by personal
knowledge, say "one of right view," therefore, taking it
as an expression (common) to the many, he touched upon
it twice, saying "One of right view, one of right view"
is said, friends (sammaditthi sammaditthi ti avuso
vuccati). The intention here is this: "Others say
'one of right view,' and still others say 'one of right
view.' Since that is said, in what way, friends, is a
noble disciple one of right view in respect of meaning
and characteristic?" Herein, one of right view is one
possessing a lucid and praiseworthy view (sobhanaya
pasatthaya ca ditthiya samannagato). But when this
word "right view" is used to signify a state (rather
than a person endowed with that state), it then means a
lucid and praiseworthy view.[1]
This right view is
twofold: mundane (lokiya) and supramundane
(lokuttara). Herein, the knowledge of kamma as one's
own and knowledge which is in conformity with the (Four
Noble) Truths are mundane right view; or, in brief,
(mundane right view is) all understanding that is
accompanied by the taints.[2]
Understanding connected with the noble paths and fruits
is supramundane right view.[3]
The person possessing right view is of three kinds: the
worldling (puthujjana), the disciple in higher
training (sekha), and the one beyond training
(asekha). Herein, the worldling is of two kinds: one
outside the Dispensation and one within the
Dispensation. Herein, one outside the Dispensation who
believes in kamma is one of right view on account of the
view of kamma as one's own, but not on account of that
which is in conformity with the truths, because he holds
to the view of self. One within the Dispensation is of
right view on account of both. The disciple in higher
training is one of right view on account of fixed right
view,[4]
the one beyond training on account of (the right view)
that is beyond training.[5]
But here "one of right
view" is intended as one possessing supramundane
wholesome right view, which is fixed in destiny and
emancipating. Hence he said: whose view is straight, who
has perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at
this true Dhamma (ujugata'ssa ditthi dhamme
aveccappasadena samannagato agato imam saddhammam).
Because of its going straight without deviating to
either extreme, or because of its going straight by
removing all crookedness such as bodily crookedness,
etc., supramundane right view is "straight." One
possessing that view also possesses perfect confidence,
unshakable confidence, in the ninefold supramundane
Dhamma.[6]
And by becoming disentangled from all the thickets of
(wrong) views, by abandoning all the defilements, by
departing from the round of rebirths, by bringing the
practice to its consummation, he is said to have come by
the noble path to this "true Dhamma" proclaimed by the
Enlightened One, that is, Nibbana, the plunge into the
Deathless.
The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
3. Understands the
unwholesome (akusalan ca pajanati): he
understands the unwholesome called the ten courses of
unwholesome kamma (action), penetrating this by way of
function with the understanding that has Nibbana as its
object as "This is suffering." (Understands) the root of
the unwholesome (akusalamulan ca pajanati): And
he understands the unwholesome root which has become the
root condition of that (unwholesome), penetrating this,
in the same way, as "This is the origin of suffering."
The same method applies here also in regard to "the
wholesome" and "the root of the wholesome." And, as it
is here, so in all the following sections, the
understanding of the subject should be understood by way
of function.
In that way (ettavata
pi): by this much; by this understanding of the
unwholesome, etc. He is one of right view
(sammaditthi hoti): he possesses supramundane right
view of the kind aforesaid. Whose view is straight...
and has arrived at this true Dhamma: At this point the
summary version of the teaching has been expounded. And
this (part of) the teaching itself was brief; but for
those bhikkhus it should be understood that the
penetration (of the meaning) through right attention
occurred in detail.
But in the second
section (Section 4) it should be understood that the
teaching too, as well as the penetration through
attention, is stated in detail.
Herein, the bhikkhus [at
the council at the Great Monastery held to rehearse the
Pitakas] said: "In the brief exposition the two lower
paths are discussed, in the detailed exposition the two
higher paths," taking into account the passage at the
end of the sections setting forth the detailed
exposition that begins "he entirely abandons the
underlying tendency to lust." But the Elder (presiding
over the council) said: "In the brief exposition the
four paths are expounded as a group, and also in the
detailed exposition."[7]
This query into the
brief and detailed expositions which has been cleared up
here should be understood in all the following sections
in the way stated here. From here on we shall only
comment on terms that are new or obscure.
The Unwholesome Courses of Action
4. Herein, firstly, in
the detailed exposition of the first section: as regards
the passage beginning killing living beings is
unwholesome (panatipato kho avuso akusalam),
"unwholesome" should be understood by way of the
occurrence of unwholesomeness, or as what is opposed to
the wholesome, which is to be dealt with below (Section
6). As to characteristic, it is blameworthy and has
painful result, or it is defiled. This, in the first
place, is the comment upon the general terms here.
But as regards the
particular terms, the phrase killing living beings means
the slaughter of a living being, the destruction of a
living being. And here a living being (pana) is,
according to ordinary usage, a being (satta); in
the ultimate sense it is the life faculty. "Killing
living beings" is the volition to kill on the part of
one who is aware, in respect of a living being, that it
is a living being, and which (volition), manifesting
itself through one or the other of the doors of body and
speech, initiates activity resulting in the cutting off
of the life faculty.
In relation to beings
such as animals, etc., which lack moral qualities
(guna), it is less blameworthy in respect of small
living beings and more blameworthy in respect of beings
with large bodies. Why? Because of the magnitude of the
effort involved. And when the effort involved is equal,
because of the magnitude of the object (the being
killed). In relation to beings such as humans, etc., who
possess moral qualities, it is less blameworthy in
respect of beings with few good qualities and more
blameworthy in respect of beings with great qualities.
When the size of the body and moral qualities are equal,
however, it is less blameworthy when the defilements and
activity are mild, and more blameworthy when they are
strong: so it should be understood.
There are five
constituents for this (act of killing a living being): a
living being, awareness that it is a living being, the
mind to kill, activity, and the death (of the being)
thereby.
There are six means:
one's own person, command, a missile, a fixed
contrivance, a magical spell, supernormal power.
To explore this matter
in detail, however, would involve too much diffuseness.
Therefore we shall not explore it in detail, or any
other subject similar in kind. Those who wish to go into
the matter may do so by looking it up in the
Samantapasadika, the Vinaya Commentary.[8]
Taking what is not given
(adinnadana): the carrying off of others' goods,
stealing, robbery, is what is meant. Herein, "what is
not given" is another's possession, which the other may
use as he likes without incurring penalty or blame.
"Taking what is not given" is the volition to steal on
the part of one who is aware, in respect of another's
possession, that it is another's possession, and which
(volition) initiates activity resulting in the taking of
that thing.
That (taking of what is
not given) is less blameworthy when the other's property
is of low value, and more blameworthy when it is of high
value. Why? Because of the high value of the object
(stolen). When the value of the objects is equal, the
act is more blameworthy when the object belongs to one
of outstanding qualities, and less blameworthy when the
object belongs to one who, in comparison, is inferior
with respect to moral qualities.
There are five
constituents of this act: another's possession,
awareness that it is another's possession, the mind to
steal, the activity, and the carrying off (of the
object) thereby.
There are six means:
one's own person, etc. (as for killing).
And these (acts of
stealing) may be classed, according to the way in which
they occur, by way of the following: taking by theft, by
force, by concealment, by stratagem, by fraud. This here
is in brief; the details, however, are given in the
Samantapasadika.[9]
Misconduct in sensual
pleasures (kamesu micchacara): here, "in sensual
pleasures" (kamesu) means in regard to sexual
intercourse. "Misconduct" is entirely reprehensible vile
conduct. As to characteristic, sexual misconduct is the
volition to transgress bounds occurring through the body
door by way of unrighteous intent.
Herein, out of bounds
for men, firstly, are the twenty kinds of women, that
is, the ten beginning with those protected by the
mother, namely, "protected by the mother, protected by
the father, protected by the mother and father,
protected by the brother, protected by the sister,
protected by relatives, protected by the clan, protected
by the law, under protection, entailing a penalty"; and
the ten beginning with those purchased with money,
namely, "one purchased with money, one who lives (with a
man) by her own desire, one who lives (with a man) on
account of wealth, one who lives (with a man) on account
of cloth, one who is given (in marriage with the
ceremony of) dipping the hand in water, one who has been
(taken to wife and) relieved of her burden-carrying
head-pad, one who is a slave and a wife, one who is a
servant and a wife, one who is carried off in a raid,
one engaged at so much a time."[10]
Then, as concerns women,
for the twelve kinds of women consisting of the two,
namely, under protection and entailing a penalty, and
the ten beginning with those purchased with money, other
men are out of bounds.
This sexual misconduct
is less blameworthy when (the person) out of bounds is
without good qualities such as virtue, etc., and more
blameworthy when (the person) possesses good qualities
such as virtue, etc. There are four constituents of this
act: an object which is out of bounds, the mind to
engage in that, the effort to engage, and consent to the
union of sexual organs.[11]
The means is single: one's own person.
False speech
(musavada): "false" (musa) is the verbal
effort or bodily effort for destroying welfare (made) by
one bent on deceiving. "False speech" is the volition
initiating the verbal effort or bodily effort of
deceiving another on the part of one intent on
deceiving. According to another method, "false" means an
unreal, untrue case, "speech" the communication of that
as being real, true. As to characteristic, "false
speech" is the volition of one desiring to communicate
to another an untrue case as being true, which
(volition) initiates such an act of communication.
This is less blameworthy
when the welfare destroyed is slight, and more
blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is great.
Further, when it occurs on the part of householders who,
not wishing to give away some belonging of theirs, say
"I do not have it," it is less blameworthy; when one who
is a witness speaks (falsely) for the purpose of
destroying another's welfare, it is more blameworthy. In
the case of those gone forth, when it occurs by their
saying as a joke, after they have obtained just a little
oil or ghee, in the manner of the Puranas, "Today the
oil is flowing in the village just like a river," then
it is less blameworthy; but for those who speak (as a
witness) saying that they have seen what they have not
seen it is more blameworthy.
There are four
constituents of this act: an untrue case, the mind to
deceive, the appropriate effort, the communicating of
that meaning to another. The means is single: one's own
person only. That is to be regarded as the performing of
the action of deceiving another by means of the body or
by means of something attached to the body or by means
of speech. If, through that action, the other
understands that meaning, one is bound by the kamma of
false speech at the very moment of the volition
initiating the action.
Malicious speech, etc.:
The kind of speech that creates in the heart of the
person to whom it is spoken affection for oneself and
voidness (of affection) for another is malicious speech
(pisuna vaca). The kind of speech by which one
makes both oneself and another harsh, the kind of speech
which is also itself harsh, being pleasant neither to
the ear nor to the heart -- that is harsh speech
(pharusa vaca). That by which one gossips idly,
without meaning, is gossip (samphappalapa). Also,
the volition that is the root cause of these gains the
name "malicious speech," etc. And that only is intended
here.
Therein, malicious
speech is the volition of one with a defiled mind, which
(volition) initiates an effort by body or by speech
either to cause division among others or to endear
oneself (to another). It is less blameworthy when the
person divided has few good qualities, and more
blameworthy when such a one has great qualities. Its
constituents are four: another person to be divided, the
intention to divide, (thinking) "Thus these will be
separated and split" or the desire to endear oneself,
(thinking) "Thus I shall become loved and intimate," the
appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning to
that person.
Harsh speech is the
entirely harsh volition initiating an effort by body or
by speech to wound another's vital feelings. This is an
example given for the purpose of making it clear: A
village boy, it is said, went to the forest without
heeding his mother's words. Unable to make him turn
back, she scolded him angrily, saying: "May a wild
buffalo chase you!" Then a buffalo appeared before him
right there in the forest. The boy made an asseveration
of truth, saying: "Let it not be as my mother said but
as she thought!" The buffalo stood as though tied there.
Thus, although the means (employed) was that of wounding
the vital feelings, because of the gentleness of her
mind it was not harsh speech. For sometimes parents even
say to their children, "May robbers chop you to pieces!"
yet they do not even wish a lotus leaf to fall upon
them. And teachers and preceptors sometimes say to their
pupils, "What is the use of these shameless and heedless
brats? Drive them out!" yet they wish for their success
in learning and attainment.
Just as, through
gentleness of mind, speech is not harsh, so through
gentleness of speech, speech does not become unharsh;
for the words "Let him sleep in peace" spoken by one
wishing to kill are not unharsh speech. But harsh speech
is such on account of harshness of mind only. It is less
blameworthy when the person to whom it is spoken has few
good qualities, and more blameworthy when such a one has
great qualities. Its constituents are three: another to
be abused, an angry mind, the abusing.
Gossip is the
unwholesome volition initiating an effort by body or by
speech to communicate what is purposeless. It is less
blameworthy when indulged in mildly, and more
blameworthy when indulged in strongly. Its constituents
are two: the being intent on purposeless stories such as
the Bharata war or the abduction of Sita, etc., and the
telling of such stories.[12]
Covetousness
(abhijjha): It covets, thus it is covetousness;
"having become directed towards others' goods, it occurs
through inclination towards them" is the meaning. It has
the characteristic of coveting others' goods thus: "Oh,
that this were mine!" It is less blameworthy and more
blameworthy as in the case of taking what is not given.
Its constituents are two: another's goods, and the
inclination for them to be one's own. For even though
greed has arisen based on another's goods, it is not
classed as a (completed) course of kamma so long as one
does not incline to them as one's own (with the
thought), "Oh, that this were mine!"
Ill will (byapada):
It injures welfare and happiness, thus it is ill will
(hitasukham byapadayati ti byapado). Its
characteristic is the mental defect (of wishing for) the
destruction of others. It is less blameworthy and more
blameworthy as in the case of harsh speech. Its
constituents are two: another being, and the wish for
that being's destruction. For even though anger has
arisen based on another being, there is no breach of a
course of kamma so long as one does not wish, "Oh, that
this being might be cut off and destroyed!"
Wrong view
(micchaditthi): It sees wrongly due to the absence
of a correct grasp of things, thus it is wrong view. Its
characteristic is the mistaken view that "there is no
(result from) giving," etc. It is less blameworthy and
more blameworthy as in the case of gossip. Moreover, it
is less blameworthy when not fixed in destiny, and more
blameworthy when fixed.[13]
Its constituents are two: a mistaken manner of grasping
the basis (for the view), and the appearance of that
(basis) in accordance with the manner in which it has
been grasped.
Now the exposition of
these ten courses of unwholesome kamma should be
understood in five ways: as to mental state
(dhammato), as to category (kotthasato), as
to object (arammanato), as to feeling
(vedanato), and as to root (mulato).
Herein, as to mental
state: The first seven among these are volitional states
only. The three beginning with covetousness are
associated with volition.[14]
As to category: The
eight consisting of the first seven and wrong view are
courses of kamma only, not roots. Covetousness and ill
will are courses of kamma and also roots; for
covetousness, having arrived at the (state of) a root,
is the unwholesome root greed, and ill will is the
unwholesome root hate.
As to object: Killing
living beings, because it has the life faculty as
object, has a formation as object. Taking what is not
given has beings as object or formations as object.
Misconduct in sensual pleasures has formations as object
by way of tangible object; but some say it also has
beings as object. False speech has beings or formations
as object; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech has
only beings as object. Gossip has either beings or
formations as object by way of the seen, heard, sensed
and cognized; likewise covetousness. Ill will has only
beings as object. Wrong view has formations as object by
way of the states belonging to the three planes (of
being).
As to feeling: Killing
living beings has painful feeling; for although kings,
seeing a robber, say laughingly, "Go and execute him,"
their volition consummating the action is associated
only with pain. Taking what is not given has three
feelings. Misconduct (in sensual pleasures) has two
feelings, pleasant and neutral, but in the mind which
consummates the action there is no neutral feeling.
False speech has three feelings; likewise malicious
speech. Harsh speech has painful feeling only. Gossip
has three feelings. Covetousness has two feelings,
pleasant and neutral; likewise wrong view. Ill will has
painful feeling only.
As to root: Killing
living beings has two roots, by way of hate and
delusion; taking what is not given, by way of hate and
delusion or by way of greed and delusion; misconduct, by
way of greed and delusion; false speech, by way of hate
and delusion or by way of greed and delusion; likewise
for malicious speech and gossip; harsh speech, by way of
hate and delusion. Covetousness has one root, by way of
delusion; likewise ill will. Wrong view has two roots,
by way of greed and delusion.
The Unwholesome Roots
5. Greed is a root of
the unwholesome, etc.: It is greedy, thus it is greed
(lubbhati ti lobho); it offends against (it hates),
thus it is hate (dussati ti doso); it deludes,
thus it is delusion (muyhati ti moho). Among
these, greed is itself unwholesome in the sense that it
is blameworthy and has painful results; and it is a root
of these unwholesome (deeds) beginning with killing
living beings, for some in the sense that it is an
associated originative cause, for some in the sense that
it is a decisive support condition. Thus it is an
unwholesome root. This too is said: "One who is lustful,
friends, overwhelmed and with mind obsessed by lust,
kills a living being" (A.3:71/i,216; text slightly
different). The same method applies to the state of
being unwholesome roots in the cases of hate and
delusion.
The Wholesome Courses of Action
6. Abstention from
killing living beings is wholesome (panatipata
veramani), etc.: Here "killing living beings," etc.
have the same meaning as aforesaid. It crushes the
hostile, thus it is abstention (veram manati ti
veramani); the meaning is that it abandons the
hostile. Or: with that as the instrument one abstains
(viramati), the syllable ve being substituted
for the syllable vi. This here is, in the first place,
the commentary on the phrasing.
But as to the meaning,
abstention is refraining (virati) associated with
wholesome consciousness. What is stated thus: "For one
refraining from killing living beings, that which is on
that occasion the leaving off, the refraining" (Vibh.
285), that is the refraining associated with wholesome
consciousness. As to kind, it is threefold: refraining
in the presence of opportunity, refraining because of an
undertaking, and refraining because of eradication (of
defilements).
Herein, refraining in
the presence of an opportunity (sampattavirati)
is to be understood as the refraining which occurs in
those who have not undertaken any training rule but who
do not transgress when an opportunity for doing so
presents itself because they reflect upon their birth,
age, learning, etc., like the lay follower Cakkana in
the island of Sri Lanka.
When he was a boy, it is
said, his mother developed an illness, and the doctor
said, "Fresh hare's flesh is needed." Then Cakkana's
brother sent him, saying, "Go, dear, and hunt in the
field." He went there. On that occasion a hare had come
to eat the young corn. On seeing him it bolted swiftly,
but it got entangled in a creeper and squealed "kiri,
kiri." Guided by the sound, Cakkana went and caught it,
thinking, "I will make medicine for my mother." Then he
thought again, "This is not proper for me, that I should
deprive another of life for the sake of my mother's
life." So he released it, saying "Go and enjoy the grass
and the water with the other hares in the forest." When
his brother asked him, "Did you get a hare, dear?" he
told him what had happened. His brother scolded him. He
went to his mother and determined upon an asseveration
of truth: "Since I was born I am not aware that I have
ever intentionally deprived a living being of life."
Straightaway his mother became well.
Refraining because of an
undertaking (samadanavirati) is to be understood
as the refraining which occurs in those who do not
transgress in a particular case because they have
undertaken training rules, giving up even their own
lives in the undertaking of the training rules and in
what is superior to that, like the lay follower who
dwelt at Uttaravaddhamana Mountain.
It is said that after
undertaking the training rules from the Elder Pingala
Buddharakkhita who lived in the Ambariya Monastery, he
was plowing a field. Then his ox got lost. Searching for
it, he climbed up Uttaravaddhamana Mountain. There a
large serpent seized him. He thought, "Let me cut off
his head with this sharp axe." Then he thought again,
"This is not proper for me, that I should break a
training rule that I have undertaken in the presence of
my honored teacher." Thinking up to the third time, "I
will give up my life but not the training rule," he
threw the sharp hand axe that was slung on his shoulder
into the forest. Straightaway the creature released him
and went away.
Refraining because of
eradication (of defilements) (samucchedavirati)
is to be understood as the refraining associated with
the noble path. After the arising of this even the
thought, "I will kill a living being," does not occur to
the noble persons.
This refraining is
called "wholesome" (kusala) because of the
occurrence of wholesomeness (kosalla); or because
of shedding the vile (kucchitassa salanato).
Also, evil conduct is commonly called "weeds" (kusa)
and it mows this down (lunati), thus it is called
"wholesome."
As in the case of the
unwholesome, so for these courses of wholesome kamma the
exposition should be understood in five ways: as to
mental state, as to category, as to object, as to
feeling, and as to root.
Herein, as to mental
state: The first seven among these can be both volitions
and abstinences; the last three are associated with
volition only.
As to category: The
first seven are courses of kamma only, not roots. The
last three are courses of kamma and also roots. For
non-covetousness, having arrived at the (state of) a
root, is the wholesome root non-greed; non-ill will is
the wholesome root non-hate; and right view is the
wholesome root non-delusion.
As to object: The
objects of these are the same as the objects of killing
living beings, etc. For abstention is spoken of in
relation to something which can be transgressed. But
just as the noble path, which has Nibbana as object,
abandons the defilements, so too should these courses of
kamma, which have the life faculty, etc., as object, be
understood to abandon the kinds of evil conduct
beginning with killing living beings.
As to feeling: All have
pleasant feeling or neutral feeling. For there is no
painful feeling which arrives at the wholesome.
As to root: The first
seven courses of kamma have three roots by way of
non-greed, non-hate, and non-delusion in one who
abstains by means of consciousness associated with
knowledge. They have two roots in one who abstains by
means of consciousness dissociated from knowledge.[15]
Non-covetousness has two roots in one who abstains by
means of consciousness associated with knowledge, one
root (in one who abstains) by means of consciousness
dissociated from knowledge. Non-greed, however, is not
by itself its own root. The same method applies in the
case of non-ill will. Right view always has two roots,
by way of non-greed and non-hate.[16]
The Wholesome Roots
7. Non-greed is a root
of the wholesome (alobho kusalamulam), etc.:
Non-greed is not greed; this is a term for the state
that is opposed to greed. The same method applies in the
case of non-hate and non-delusion. Among these,
non-greed is itself wholesome; and it is a root of these
wholesome (courses of kamma) beginning with abstention
from killing living beings, for some in the sense that
it is an associated originative cause and for some in
the sense that it is a decisive support condition. Thus
it is a wholesome root. The same method applies to the
state of being wholesome roots in the cases of non-hate
and non-delusion.
Conclusion on the Unwholesome and the Wholesome
8. Now, summing up the
meaning of all that has been set forth in brief and in
detail, he states the concluding section beginning with
the words when a noble disciple. Herein, has thus
understood the wholesome (evam akusalam pajanati)
means: has thus understood the unwholesome by way of the
ten courses of unwholesome kamma as described. The same
method applies in the case of the root of the
unwholesome, etc.
Up to this point, by a
single method, emancipation as far as arahantship has
been expounded for one who has the Four Noble Truths as
his meditation subject. How? Here, the ten courses of
unwholesome kamma with the exception of covetousness,
and the (ten) courses of wholesome kamma, are the truth
of suffering. These two states -- covetousness and the
greed which is a root of the unwholesome -- are,
literally speaking, the truth of the origin. Speaking
figuratively, however, all the courses of kamma are the
truth of suffering, and all the wholesome and
unwholesome roots are the truth of the origin.[17]
The non-occurrence of both is the truth of cessation.
The noble path fully understanding suffering, abandoning
its origin, and understanding its cessation is the truth
of the path. Thus two truths are stated in their own
nature and two are to be understood by way of the
guideline of conversion.[18]
He entirely abandons the
underlying tendency to lust (so sabbaso raganusayam
pahaya): Understanding thus the unwholesome, etc.,
he abandons in all ways the underlying tendency to lust.
He abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion
(patighanusayam pativinodetva): and he removes in
all ways too the underlying tendency to aversion, is
what is meant. Up to this point the path of nonreturn is
stated.[19]
He extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and
conceit "I am" (asmi ti ditthimananusayam
samuhanitva): he extricates the underlying tendency
to the view and conceit which occurs in the mode of
grasping the five aggregates as a group (with the
notion) "I am," due to failure to distinguish any state
among them.
Therein, by the phrase
the underlying tendency to the view and conceit "I am"
(ditthimananusayam) what is meant is the
underlying tendency to conceit which is similar to a
view (ditthisadisam mananusayam). For this
underlying tendency to conceit is similar to a view
because it occurs (with the notion) "I am"; therefore it
is stated thus. And one who wishes to understand this
conceit "I am" in detail should look up the Khemaka
Sutta in the Khandhiyavagga (S.22:89/iii,126ff.).
By abandoning ignorance
(avijjam pahaya): having abandoned ignorance, the
root of the round (of existence). And arousing true
knowledge (vijjam uppadetva): having aroused the
true knowledge of the path of arahantship which
completely extricates that ignorance. At this point the
path of arahantship is stated.[20]
He here and now makes an end of suffering (ditth'eva
dhamme dukkhass'antakaro hoti): in this very
existence he becomes one who cuts off the suffering of
the round.
In that way too
(ettavatapi kho avuso): he marks off (this first
part of) the teaching; by way of the attention and
penetration stated in this exposition of the courses of
kamma, is what is meant. The rest is as aforesaid. Thus
he concludes the exposition by means of the path of
nonreturn and the path of arahantship.
THE FOUR NUTRIMENTS
General
9. Saying, "Good,
friend,"... (etc.)..." and has arrived at this true
Dhamma": Thus, having heard the Venerable Sariputta's
exposition of the four truths under the heading of the
wholesome and the unwholesome, the bhikkhus delighted in
his words with the statement, "Good, friend," and
rejoiced with the mind that aroused that statement; what
is meant is that they agreed by word and approved by
mind. Now, because the Elder was competent to give an
exposition on the four truths in diverse ways -- as (the
Blessed One) said: "Bhikkhus, Sariputta is able to
propound, to teach, the Four Noble Truths in detail"
(M.141/iii, 248); or because he had said "in that way
too," being desirous of giving a further exposition, the
bhikkhus, being desirous of hearing the teaching of the
four truths by another method, asked him a further
question. By asking "But, friend, might there be another
way? Would there be another case?" they asked another
question additional to that question asked and answered
(already) by the Venerable Sariputta himself. Or what is
meant is that they asked a question subsequent to the
previous one. Then, answering them, the Elder said,
"There might be, friends," and so on.
10. Herein, this is the
elucidation of the terms that are not clear. Nutriment
(ahara) is a condition (paccaya). For a
condition nourishes its own fruit, therefore it is
called nutriment.[21]
11. Of beings that
already have come to be (bhutanam va sattanam),
etc.: Here come to be (bhuta) means come to
birth, reborn; seeking a new existence
(sambhavesinam) means those who seek, search for,
existence, birth, production. Therein, among the four
kinds of generation,[22]
beings born from eggs and from the womb are said to be
"seeking a new existence" as long as they have not
broken out of the eggshell or the placenta. When they
have broken out of the eggshell or the placenta and
emerged outside, they are said to have "come to be." The
moisture-born and the spontaneously born are said to be
"seeking a new existence" at the first moment of
consciousness; from the second moment of consciousness
onwards they are said to have "come to be."
Or alternatively, "come
to be" is born, reproduced; this is a term for those who
have destroyed the cankers (arahants), who are
reckoned thus: "They have come to be only, but they will
not come to be again." "Seeking a new existence" means
they seek a new existence; this is a term for worldlings
and disciples in higher training who seek a new
existence in the future too, because they have not
abandoned the fetter of being. Thus by these two terms
he includes all beings in all ways.
For the maintenance
(thitiya); for the purpose of maintaining. For the
support (anuggahaya): for the purpose of
supporting, for the purpose of helping. This is merely a
difference of words, but the meaning of the two terms is
one only. Or alternatively, "for the maintenance" is for
the non-interruption of this or that being by means of
the serial connection of arisen states. "For the
support" is for the arising of unarisen (states). And
both these expressions should be regarded as applicable
in both cases thus: "For the maintenance and support of
those that have come to be, and for the maintenance and
support of those seeking a new existence."
The Four Kinds of Nutriment
Physical food as
nutriment (lit. "food made into a ball") (kabalinkaro
aharo) is nutriment that can be swallowed after
making it into a ball; this is a term for the nutritive
essence which has as its basis boiled rice, junket,
etc.[23]
Gross or subtle (olariko va sukhumo va): it is
gross because of the grossness of the basis, and subtle
because of the subtlety of the basis. But because
physical nutriment is included in subtle materiality, by
way of its individual essence it is subtle only.[24]
And also that grossness and subtlety should be
understood relatively in respect of the basis.
The nutriment of
peacocks is subtle compared with the nutriment of
crocodiles. Crocodiles, they say, swallow stones, and
these dissolve on reaching their stomachs. Peacocks eat
such animals as snakes, scorpions, etc. But the
nutriment of hyenas is subtle compared with the
nutriment of peacocks. These, they say, eat horns and
bones thrown away three years before, and these become
soft as yams as soon as they are moistened with their
saliva. Also, the nutriment of elephants is subtle
compared with the nutriment of hyenas. For these eat the
branches of various trees, etc. The nutriment of the
gayal buffalo, the antelope, the deer, etc., is subtler
than the nutriment of elephants. These, they say, eat
the sapless leaves of various kinds of trees, etc. The
nutriment of cows is subtler than their nutriment; they
eat fresh and dried grass. The nutriment of hares is
subtler than their nutriment; that of birds is subtler
than that of hares; that of barbarians is subtler than
that of birds; that of village headmen is subtler than
that of barbarians; that of kings and kings' ministers
is subtler than village headmens'; that of a
Wheel-turning Monarch is subtler than their nutriment.
The earth deities' nutriment is subtler than that of a
Wheel-turning Monarch. The nutriment of the deities of
the Four Great Kings is subtler than that of the earth
deities. Thus nutriment should be elaborated up to that
of the deities who wield power over others' creations.[25]
But saying, "Their nutriment is subtle," the end is
reached.
And here, in a basis
that is gross, the nutritive essence is limited and
weak; in one that is subtle, it is strong. Thus one who
has drunk even a full bowl of gruel is soon hungry again
and desirous of eating anything; but after drinking even
a small amount of ghee, he will not want to eat for the
whole day. Therein, it is the basis that dispels
fatigue, but it is unable to preserve; but the nutritive
essence preserves, though it cannot dispel fatigue. But
when the two are combined they both dispel fatigue and
preserve.
Contact as the second
(phasso dutiyo): The sixfold contact beginning with
eye-contact should be understood as the second of these
four kinds of nutriment. And this is the method of the
teaching itself; therefore it should not be inquired
into here, saying "For this reason it is the second, or
the third." Mental volition (manosancetana):
volition (cetana) itself is stated. Consciousness
(viññanam): any kind of consciousness whatever.
It may be asked here:
"If the meaning of condition is the meaning of
nutriment, then, when other conditions also exist for
beings, why are only these four stated?" It should be
said in reply: "It is because they are the special
conditions for personal continuity." For physical
nutriment is the special condition for the material body
of beings that eat physical nutriment; as regards the
group of mental constituents, contact is (the special
condition) for feeling, mental volition for
consciousness, and consciousness for
mentality-materiality. As it is said: "Just as,
bhikkhus, this body has nutriment for its maintenance,
is maintained in dependence on nutriment, and without
nutriment is not maintained" (S.46:2/v,64); and
likewise: "With contact as condition, feeling;... with
formations as condition, consciousness;... with
consciousness as condition, mentality-materiality"
(S.12:1/ii,1, etc.).
What is this nutriment,
and what does it nourish? Physical nutriment nourishes
the materiality with nutritive essence as eighth;[26]
contact as nutriment nourishes the three feelings;
mental volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds
of being; consciousness as nutriment nourishes the
mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking.
How? As soon as it is
placed in the mouth, physical food as nutriment brings
into being the eight kinds of materiality (aforesaid).
Then each lump of cooked rice ground by the teeth, on
being swallowed, brings into being unit after unit of
the eight kinds of materiality. Thus it nourishes the
materiality with nutritive essence as eighth.
But with contact as
nutriment, when contact productive of pleasant feeling
arises it nourishes pleasant feeling; contact productive
of painful feeling nourishes painful feeling; contact
productive of neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling
nourishes neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Thus in
all ways contact as nutriment nourishes the three kinds
of feeling.
In the case of mental
volition as nutriment, kamma leading to sense-sphere
being nourishes sense-sphere being; kamma leading to
fine-material and immaterial being nourishes its
respective kind of being. Thus in all ways mental
volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds of
being.
But with consciousness
as nutriment, it is said that it nourishes, by way of
conascence condition, etc., the three (immaterial)
aggregates associated with itself at the moment of
rebirth-linking and the thirty kinds of materiality that
arise by way of triple continuity. Thus consciousness
nourishes the mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking.[27]
And here, by the words
"mental volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds
of being," only the wholesome and unwholesome volition
accompanied by taints is meant; by the words
"consciousness nourishes the mentality-materiality of
rebirth-linking," only rebirth-linking consciousness is
meant. However, these are to be understood
indiscriminately as nutriments as well because they
nourish the states that are associated with them and
originated by them.
The Four Functions
As regards these four
kinds of nutriment, physical food as nutriment
accomplishes the function of nutriment by sustaining,
contact by contacting (touching), mental volition by
accumulating, consciousness by cognizing.
How? Physical food as
nutriment, by sustaining, is for the maintenance of
beings by maintaining the body. For this body, though
generated by kamma, is sustained by physical food and
stands for ten years or a hundred years up to the end of
the life-span. Like what? Like a child which, though
given birth by the mother, is nurtured by the milk,
etc., given to him to drink by the wet-nurse and thus
lives long. Also, as a house is supported by a prop.
This too has been said (untraced): "Great king, just as,
when a house is collapsing, they prop it up with other
timber, and that house, being propped up by other
timber, does not collapse, so too this body is supported
by nutriment, persists in dependence upon nutriment."
Thus physical food as
nutriment accomplishes the function of nutriment by
sustaining. Accomplishing it thus, physical food as
nutriment becomes a condition for two material
continuities, namely, for that originated by nutriment
and that kammically acquired.[28]
It is a condition for the kamma-born materiality by
becoming its preserver. It is a condition for that
originated by nutriment by becoming its producer.
Then contact, by
contacting the object which is the basis for pleasure,
etc., is "for the maintenance of beings" by causing the
occurrence of pleasant feeling, etc. Mental volition,
accumulating by way of wholesome and unwholesome kamma,
is "for the maintenance of beings" because it provides
the root of existence. Consciousness, by cognizing, is
"for the maintenance of beings" by causing the
occurrence of mentality-materiality.
The Four Dangers
Now, while these are
accomplishing their function of nutriment by sustaining,
etc., four dangers are to be seen: the danger of desire
in the case of physical food as nutriment; the danger of
approach in the case of contact; (the danger) of
accumulating in the case of mental volition; and (the
danger) of launching [into a new existence here or there
by way of taking rebirth-linking] in the case of
consciousness.
What are the reasons
(for this)? Because, having aroused desire for physical
food, beings face cold, etc., to undertake such work as
checking, accounting, etc., and incur not a little
suffering. And some who have gone forth in this
dispensation seek nutriment through such improper means
as the practice of medicine, etc., and they are to be
censured here and now, and hereafter they become
"recluse ghosts" in the manner described thus in the
Lakkhana Samyutta: "And his outer robe was burning,
blazing," etc.[29]
For this reason, desire itself is to be understood as
the danger in physical food as nutriment.
Those who approach
contact, who find gratification in contact, commit
crimes in respect of others' guarded and protected
belongings, such as their wives, etc. When the owners of
the goods catch them with their belongings, they cut
them into pieces or throw them onto a rubbish heap, or
hand them over to the king; and then the king has
various tortures inflicted upon them. And with the
breakup of the body, after death, a bad destination is
to be expected for them. Thus this entire danger -- that
pertaining to the here and now and that pertaining to
the afterlife -- has come about rooted in contact. For
this reason, approach is to be understood as the danger
in the case of the nutriment contact.
The entire danger in the
three realms of existence has come about by the
accumulation of wholesome and unwholesome kamma and is
rooted in that (accumulation). For this reason,
accumulation is to be understood as the danger in the
nutriment mental volition.
And in whatever place
rebirth-linking consciousness launches (the new
existence), in that same place it is reborn by seizing
the rebirth-linking mentality-materiality. When it is
produced, all dangers are produced, for they are all
rooted in it. For this reason, launching is to be
understood as the danger in the nutriment consciousness.
The Four Similes
In regard to these
nutriments with their dangers, for the sake of
eliminating desire for the nutriment physical food, the
Fully Enlightened One taught the simile of son's flesh
in the passage beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, a
couple, a man and his wife,..." For the sake of
eliminating desire for the nutriment contact, he taught
the simile of the flayed cow in the passage beginning
thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a flayed cow..." For
the sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment mental
volition, he taught the simile of the charcoal pit in
the passage beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there
was a charcoal pit..." And for the sake of eliminating
desire for the nutriment consciousness, he taught the
simile of the man struck with three hundred spears in
the passage beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there
was a thief, a crook..."[30]
Therein, taking the
essential meaning, there follows a brief interpretation
of the meaning. A couple, it is said, a man and his
wife, took their son and set out on a desert trail a
hundred yojanas long,[31]
with only limited provisions. When they had gone fifty
yojanas their provisions ran out. Exhausted by hunger
and thirst, they sat down in some scanty shade. Then the
man said to his wife: "My dear, for fifty yojanas on all
sides there is neither a village nor a town. Therefore,
though a man can do many kinds of work, such as plowing,
guarding cattle, etc., it is not possible for me to do
that. Come, kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having
made the other half into provisions for the journey,
cross out of the desert together with our son."
The wife said: "Dear
husband, though a woman can do many kinds of work, such
as spinning thread, etc., it is not possible for me to
do that. Come, kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having
made the other half into provisions for the journey,
cross out of the desert together with our son."
Then the man said: "My
dear, the death of the mother would mean the death of
two, for a young boy cannot live without his mother. But
if we both live, then we can beget another child again.
Come now, let us kill our child, take his flesh, and
cross out of this desert."
Then the mother said to
the son: "Dear, go to your father." He went, but the
father said: "For the sake of supporting this child I
incurred much suffering through such work as plowing,
guarding cattle, etc. I cannot kill the boy. You kill
your son." Then he said: "Dear, go to your mother." But
the mother said: "Longing for a son I incurred much
suffering by observing the cow-observance, the
dog-observance, praying to the gods, etc., not to speak
of bearing him in my womb.[32]
It is not possible for me to kill him." Then she said:
"Dear, go to your father."
The boy died from going
back and forth between the father and the mother. Seeing
him dead, they wept, and having taken the flesh as
described above, they departed. Because that flesh of
their son was repulsive to them for nine reasons, it was
not eaten for enjoyment nor for intoxication nor for
making (the body) strong and beautiful, but only for the
purpose of crossing out of the desert.
For what nine reasons
was it repulsive? Because it was the flesh of their own
offspring, the flesh of a relative, the flesh of a son,
the flesh of a dear son, the flesh of a youngster, raw
flesh, not beef, unsalted, unspiced. Therefore the
bhikkhu who sees the nutriment physical food thus, as
similar to son's flesh, eliminates the desire for it.[33]
This, in the first
place, is the interpretation of the meaning of the
simile of son's flesh.
Then, as regards the
simile of the flayed cow: If a cow were stripped of its
skin from the neck to the hooves and then set free,
whatever it would rest upon would become a basis of pain
for it, since it would be bitten by the small creatures
living there.[34]
So too, whatever physical basis or object contact stands
upon as its support becomes a basis for the felt pain
originating from that basis or object.[35]
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment contact thus,
as similar to a flayed cow, eliminates the desire for
it. This is the interpretation of the meaning of the
simile of the flayed cow.
Then, as regards the
simile of the charcoal pit:[36]
The three realms of being are like a charcoal pit in the
sense of a great burning heat (lit., a great fever).
Like the two men who grab hold (of a weaker man) by both
his arms and drag him towards it, is mental volition in
the sense that it drags one towards the realms of being.
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment mental
volition thus, as similar to a charcoal pit, eliminates
the desire for it. This is the interpretation of the
meaning of the simile of the charcoal pit.
Then, as regards the
simile of the man struck with three hundred spears:[37]
The hundred spears that strike the man in the morning
make a hundred wound openings in his body, and without
remaining inside they pierce through and fall on the
other side; and so with |