Introduction
This analysis of the
Path is intended as a guide to lead practicing Buddhists
to peace and well-being in terms both of the world and
of the Dhamma. Well-being in terms of the world includes
such things as fortune, status, praise, and pleasure.
These four things depend on our conducting ourselves
properly along the right path. If we follow the wrong
path, though, we are bound to meet with loss of fortune,
loss of status, censure and criticism, suffering and
pain. The fact that we experience these things may well
be due to deficiencies in our own conduct. So if our
practice of the right path -- the Noble Eightfold Path
-- is to lead us to peace in terms both of the world and
of the Dhamma, we will first have to study it so that we
understand it rightly and then conduct ourselves in line
with its factors. Then, if we have aims in terms of the
world, we'll get good results. Our fortune, status, good
name, and pleasure will be solid and lasting. Even after
we die, they will continue to appear in the world.
If, however, we see
that fortune, status, praise, and pleasure are
inconstant, undependable, and subject to change, we
should immediately start trying to study and develop the
qualities that will lead our hearts in the direction of
peace. We are then sure to meet with results that
parallel those of the world. For example, status -- the
paths of stream-entry, once-returning, non-returning,
and Arahantship; fortune -- the gaining of the fruition
of stream-entry, once-returning, non-returning, and
Arahantship: These forms of status and fortune don't
deteriorate. They stay with us always. At the same time,
we'll receive praise and pleasure in full measure,
inasmuch as Buddhists chant in praise virtually every
night and day that, "The followers of the Blessed One
conduct themselves well, conduct themselves uprightly,
conduct themselves for the sake of knowledge, conduct
themselves masterfully." Similarly, our pleasure will be
solid and lasting, steeping and refreshing the heart
with the Dhamma, not subject to death or decay. This is
called "niramisa sukha," pleasure free from the
baits of the world; quiet and cool, genuine and
unchanging, the pleasure for which people who practice
the Buddha's teachings aspire. Like gold: No matter in
what land or nation it may fall, it remains gold by its
very nature and is bound to be desired by people at
large. In the same way, the mental traits of people who
follow the right path in terms of the Dhamma are bound
to give rise to genuine pleasure and ease. Even when
they die from this world, their fortune, status, good
name, and pleasure in terms of the Dhamma will not leave
them.
Thus, Buddhists who aim
at progress and happiness should study, ponder, and put
into practice -- as far as they can -- all eight factors
of the Noble Path set out here as a guide to practice.
There may, however, be some mistakes in what is written
here, because I have aimed more at the meaning and
practice than at the letter of the scriptures. So
wherever there may be mistakes or deficiencies, please
forgive me. I feel certain, though, that whoever
practices in line with the guidelines given here is sure
to meet -- to at least some extent -- with ease of body
and mind in terms both of the world and of the Dhamma,
in accordance with his or her own practice and conduct.
May each and every one
of you meet with progress and happiness.
Phra Ajaan Lee
Dhammadharo
Wat Boromnivas, Bangkok
August, 1955
All of the Buddha's
teachings and their practice can be summed up in a mere
eight factors --
I. Right View: seeing in line with the truth.
II. Right Resolve: thinking in ways that will lead
to well-being.
III. Right Speech: speaking in line with the truth.
IV. Right Action: being correct and upright in one's
activities.
V. Right Livelihood: maintaining oneself in ways
that are honest and proper.
VI. Right Effort: exerting oneself in line with all
that is good.
VII. Right Mindfulness: always being mindful of the
person or topic that forms one's point of reference.
VIII. Right Concentration: keeping the mind
correctly centered in line with the principles of the
truth, not letting it fall into the ways of Wrong
Concentration.
Discussion:
I. Right View:
"Seeing in line with the truth" means seeing the four
Noble Truths --
A.
Dukkha: physical and mental stress and
discomfort.
B.
Samudaya: the origin of physical and mental
stress, i.e., ignorance and such forms of craving as
sensual desire. Right View sees that these are the
causes of all stress.
C.
Nirodha: the ending and disbanding of the causes
of stress, causing stress to disband as well, leaving
only the unequaled ease of nibbana.
D.
Magga: the practices that form a path leading to
the end of the causes of stress, i.e., ignorance (avijja)
-- false knowledge, partial and superficial; and craving
(tanha) -- struggling that goes out of proportion
to the way things are. Both of these factors can be
abandoned through the power of the Path, the practices
we need to bring to maturity within ourselves through
circumspect discernment. Discernment can be either
mundane or transcendent, but only through the
development of concentration can transcendent
discernment or insight arise, seeing profoundly into the
underlying truth of all things in the world.
In short, there are two
sides to Right View:
-- knowing that shoddy
thoughts, words, and deeds lead to stress and suffering
for ourselves and others;
-- and that good
knowing, properly giving rise to good in our thoughts,
words, and deeds, leads to ease of body and mind for
ourselves and others. In other words, Right View sees
that shoddiness is something that good people don't
like, and that shoddy people don't like it either. This
is what is meant by seeing in line with the truth. For
this reason, people of discernment should always act in
ways that are good and true if they are to qualify as
having Right View.
II.
Right Resolve:
There are three ways of thinking that will lead to
well-being --
A.
Nekkhamma-sankappa: resolving to shed the
pleasures of the senses -- which lie at the essence of
the mental Hindrances -- from the heart and mind.
B.
Abyapada-sankappa: resolving to weaken,
dismantle, and destroy any evil in our thoughts; in
other words, trying to shed from the heart and mind any
thoughts of ill will we may have toward people who
displease us.
C.
Avihinsa-sankappa: resolving not to think in ways
that aim at punishing or doing violence to others, or in
ways that would lead to harm for other people or living
beings. No matter how good or evil other people may be,
we don't give rein to thoughts of envy, jealousy or
competitiveness. We can shed these things from the heart
because they are harmful to us -- and when we can do
ourselves harm, there is nothing to keep us from harming
others.
In short, there are two
sides to Right Resolve:
-- the intention at all
times to abandon any shoddy or distressing traits that
defile the mind and cause it to suffer; the intention to
remove ourselves from this suffering, because traits of
this sort are a form of self-punishment in which we do
ourselves harm;
-- the intention to
develop within ourselves whatever will give rise to
ease, comfort, and pleasure for the mind, until we reach
the point where peace and ease are absolute: This is
classed as having good will toward ourselves. Only then
can we qualify as having Right Resolve.
III.
Right Speech:
Speaking in line with the truth has four forms --
A.
Not lying.
B.
Not speaking divisively, e.g., talking about this
person to that person so as to give rise to
misunderstandings leading to a falling-out between the
two.
C.
Not speaking harsh or vulgar words, casting
aspersions on a person's family, race, or occupation in
ways that are considered base by the conventions of the
world.
D.
Not speaking idly, i.e., in ways that are of no
benefit to the listener -- for instance, criticizing or
gossiping about the faults of other people in ways that
don't serve to remind our listeners to correct their own
faults; or grumbling, i.e., complaining over and over
about something until our listeners can't stand it any
longer, the way a drunkard grumbles repeatedly without
saying anything worthwhile; or speaking extravagantly --
even if what we say may be good, if it goes over our
listeners' heads it serves no purpose; or babbling,
i.e., speaking excessively without any aim: Talking at
great length without really saying anything serves no
purpose at all, and fits the phrase, "A waste of words,
a waste of breath, a waste of time."
In short:
-- Don't say anything
bad or untrue.
-- Say only things that
are true and good, that will give knowledge to our
listeners or bring them to their senses. Even then,
though, we should have a sense of time, place, and
situation if our words are to qualify as Right Speech.
Don't hope to get by on good words and good intentions
alone. If what you say isn't right for the situation, it
can cause harm. Suppose, for instance, that another
person does something wrong. Even though you may mean
well, if what you say strikes that person the wrong way,
it can cause harm.
There's a story they
tell about a monk who was walking across an open field
and happened to meet up with a farmer carrying a plow
over his shoulder and a hoe in his hand, wearing a
palm-leaf hat and a waistcloth whose ends weren't tucked
in. On seeing the monk, the farmer raised his hands in
respect without first putting himself in order. The
monk, meaning well, wanted to give the farmer a gentle
reminder and so said, "Now, that's not the way you pay
respect to a monk, is it?" "If it isn't," the farmer
replied, "then to hell with it." As a result, the gentle
reminder ended up causing harm.
IV.
Right Action:
being upright in our activities. With reference to our
personal actions, this means adhering to the three
principles of virtuous conduct --
A.
Not killing, harming or harassing other people or
living beings.
B.
Not stealing, concealing, embezzling, or
misappropriating the belongings of other people.
C.
Not engaging in immoral or illicit sex with the
children or spouses of other people.
With reference to our
work in general, Right Action means this: Some of our
undertakings are achieved through our physical activity.
Before engaging in them, we should first evaluate them
to see just how beneficial they will be to ourselves and
others, and to see whether or not they are clean and
pure. If we see that they will cause suffering or harm,
we should refrain from them and choose only those
activities that will lead to ease, convenience, and
comfort for ourselves and others.
"Action" here, includes
every physical action we take: sitting, standing,
walking, and lying down; the use of every part of the
body, e.g., grasping or taking with our hands; as well
as the use of our senses of sight, hearing, smell,
taste, and feeling. All of this counts as physical
activity or action.
External action can be
divided into five sorts:
a.
Government: undertaking responsibility to aid and assist
the citizens of the nation in ways that are honest and
fair; giving them protection so that they can all live
in happiness and security. For example: (1)
protecting their lives and property so that they may
live in safety and freedom; (2) giving them aid,
e.g., making grants of movable or immovable property;
giving support so that they can improve their financial
standing, their knowledge, and their conduct,
establishing standards that will lead the country as a
whole to prosperity -- "A civilized people living in a
civilized land" -- under the rule of justice, termed
"dhammadhipateyya," making the Dhamma sovereign.
b.
Agriculture: putting the land to use, e.g., growing
crops, running farms and orchards so as to gain wealth
and prosperity from what is termed the wealth in the
soil.
c.
Industry: extracting and transforming the resources that
come from the earth but in their natural state can't
give their full measure of ease and convenience, and
thus need to be transformed: e.g., making rice into
flour or sweets; turning fruits or tubers into liquid --
for instance, making orange juice; making solids into
liquids -- e.g., smelting ore; or liquids into solids.
All of these activities have to be conducted in honesty
and fairness to qualify as Right Action.
d.
Commerce: the buying, selling, and trading of various
objects for the convenience of those who desire them, as
a way of exchanging ease, convenience, and comfort with
one another -- on high and low levels, involving high
and low-quality goods, between people of high, low, and
middling intelligence. This should be conducted in
honesty and fairness so that all receive their share of
justice and convenience .
e.
Labor: working for hire, searching for wealth in line
with the level of our abilities, whether low, middling,
or high. Our work should be up to the proper standards
and worthy -- in all honesty and fairness -- of the
wages we receive.
In short, Right Action
means:
-- being clean and
honest, faithful to our duties at all times;
-- improving the
objects with which we deal so that they can become clean
and honest, too. Clean things -- whether many or few --
are always good by their very nature. Other people may
or may not know, but we can't help knowing each and
every time.
Thus, before we engage
in any action so as to make it upright and honest, we
first have to examine and weigh things carefully, being
thoroughly circumspect in using our judgment and
intelligence. Only then can our actions be in line with
right moral principles.
V.
Right Livelihood.
In maintaining ourselves and supporting our families,
expending our wealth for the various articles we use or
consume, we must use our earnings -- coming from our
Right Actions -- in ways that are in keeping with moral
principles. Only then will they provide safety and
security, fostering the freedom and peace in our life
that will help lead to inner calm. For example, there
are four ways of using our wealth rightly so as to
foster our own livelihood and that of others, providing
happiness for all --
A.
Charity: expending our wealth so as to be of use to the
poor, sick, needy, or helpless who merit the help of
people who have wealth, both inner and outer, so that
they may live in ease and comfort.
B.
Support: expending what wealth we can afford to provide
for the ease and comfort of our family and close
friends.
C.
Aid: expending our wealth or our energies for the sake
of the common good -- for example, by helping the
government either actively or passively. "Actively"
means donating a sum of money to a branch of the
government, such as setting up a fund to foster any of
its various activities. "Passively" means being willing
to pay our taxes for the sake of the nation, not trying
to be evasive or uncooperative. Our wealth will then
benefit both ourselves and others.
D.
Offerings (danapuja): This means making gifts of
the four necessities of life to support Buddhism. This
is a way of paying homage to the Buddha, Dhamma, and
Sangha that will serve the purposes of the religion. At
the same time, it's a way of earning inner wealth,
termed "ariyadhana." A person observing the
principles of Right Livelihood who does this will reap
benefits both in this life and in the next.
The wealth we have
rightfully earned, though, if we don't have a sense of
how to use it properly, can cause us harm both in this
life and in lives to come. Thus, in expending our wealth
in the area of charity, we should do so honestly. In the
area of support, we should use forethought and care. The
same holds true in the areas of aid and offerings.
Before making expenditures, we should consider the
circumstances carefully, to see whether or not they're
appropriate. If they aren't, then we shouldn't provide
assistance. Otherwise, our wealth may work to our harm.
If we provide help to people who don't deserve it -- for
instance, giving assistance to thieves -- the returns
may be detrimental to our own situation. The same holds
true in making offerings to the religion. If a monk has
no respect for the monastic discipline, doesn't observe
the principles of morality, neglects his proper duties
-- the threefold training -- and instead behaves in ways
that are deluded, misguided, and deceitful, then whoever
makes offerings to such a monk will suffer for it in the
end, as in the saying,
Make friends with fools and they'll lead you astray;
Make friends with the wise and they'll show you the way.
Make friends with the evil and you'll end up threadbare,
And the fruit of your evil is: No one will care.
Now, we may think that
a monk's evil is his own business, as long as we're
doing good. This line of thinking ought to be right, but
it may turn out to be wrong. Suppose, for instance, that
a group of people is playing cards in defiance of the
law. You're not playing with them, you're just sitting
at the table, watching. But if the authorities catch
you, they're sure to take you along with the group, no
matter how much you may protest your innocence. In the
same way, whoever makes offerings without careful
forethought may end up reaping harm, and such a person
can't be classified as maintaining Right Livelihood.
In short, there are two
sides to Right Livelihood:
-- We should have a
sense of how to use our wealth so as to maintain
ourselves in line with our station in life, being
neither too miserly nor too extravagant.
-- We should give help
to other people, as we are able, so as to provide them
with comfort and well-being. This is what it means to
maintain Right Livelihood.
VI.
Right Effort.
There are four ways of exerting ourselves in line with
the Dhamma --
A.
Make a persistent effort to abandon whatever evil there
is in your conduct. For example, if you've given
yourself over to drinking to the point where you've
become alcoholic, spoiling your work, wasting your money
and yourself, creating problems in your family, this is
classed as a kind of evil. Or if you've given yourself
over to gambling to the point where you've lost all
sense of proportion, blindly gambling your money away,
creating trouble for yourself and others, this too is
classed as a kind of evil. Or if you've let yourself
become promiscuous, going from partner to partner beyond
the bounds of propriety, this can be damaging to your
spouse and children, wasting your money, ruining your
reputation, and so is classed as a kind of evil, too. Or
if you've been associating with the wrong kind of
people, troublemakers and debauched types who will pull
you down to their level, this will cause you to lose
your money, your reputation, and whatever virtue you may
have. Thus, each of these activities is classed as an
evil -- a doorway to ruin and to the lower realms -- so
you should make a persistent effort to abandon each of
them completely.
B.
Make a persistent effort to prevent evil from arising;
and use restraint to put a halt to whatever evil may be
in the process of arising -- as when greedy desires that
go against the principles of fairness appear within you.
For instance, suppose you have a ten-acre plot of land
that you haven't utilized fully, and yet you go
infringing on other people's property: This is classed
as greedy desire, a path to trouble and suffering for
yourself and others. Now, this doesn't mean that you
aren't allowed to eat and live, or that you aren't
allowed to work and search for wealth. Actually, those
who have the enterprise to make whatever land or wealth
they own bear fruit, or even increasing fruit, were
praised by the Buddha as "utthana-sampada,"
enterprising, industrious people who will gain a full
measure of welfare in this lifetime. Greedy desires,
here, mean any desires that go beyond our proper limits
and infringe on other people. This sort of desire is
bound to cause harm and so is classed as a kind of evil.
When such a desire arises in the heart, you should use
restraint to put a halt to it. This is what is meant by
preventing evil from arising.
Another example is
anger, arising from either good or bad intentions that,
when unfulfilled, lead to feelings of irritation and
dissatisfaction. Such feelings should be stilled. Don't
let them flare up and spread, for anger is something you
don't like in other people, and they don't like it in
you. Thus it's classed as a kind of evil. You should
exert restraint and keep your mind on a steady and even
keel. Your anger won't then have a chance to grow and
will gradually fade away. This is what's meant by making
a persistent effort to keep evil from taking root and
sprouting branches.
Or take delusion
(moha) -- knowledge that doesn't fit the truth: You
shouldn't jump to conclusions. Restrain yourself from
making snap judgments so that you can first examine and
consider things carefully. For instance, sometimes you
understand right to be wrong, and wrong to be right:
This is delusion. When right looks wrong to you, your
thoughts, words, and deeds are bound to be wrong, out of
line with the truth, and so can cause you to slip into
ways that are evil. When wrong looks right to you, your
thoughts, words, and deeds are also bound to be wrong
and out of line with the truth. Suppose that a black
crow looks white to you; or an albino buffalo, black:
When people who see the truth meet up with you, disputes
can result. This is thus a form of evil. Or suppose that
you have good intentions but act out of delusion: If you
happen to do wrong -- for example, giving food to monks
at times when they aren't allowed to eat, all because of
your own ignorance and delusion -- you'll end up causing
harm. Therefore, you should be careful to observe events
and situations, searching for knowledge so as to keep
your thoughts and opinions in line. Delusion then won't
have a chance to arise. This is classed as making an
effort to exercise restraint so that evil won't arise.
As for whatever evil
you've already abandoned, don't let it return. Cut off
the evil behind you and fend off the evil before you.
Evil will thus have a chance to fade away.
C.
Make a persistent effort to give rise to the good within
yourself. For example --
1.
Saddha-sampada: Be a person of mature conviction
-- conviction in the principle of cause and effect;
conviction that if we do good we'll have to meet with
good, if we do evil we'll have to meet with evil.
Whether or not other people are aware of our actions,
the goodness we do is a form of wealth that will stay
with us throughout time.
2.
Sila-sampada: Be a person of mature virtue, whose
words and deeds are in proper order, whose behavior is
in line with the principles of honesty leading to
purity. These are truly human values that we should
foster within ourselves.
3.
Caga-sampada: Be magnanimous and generous in
making donations and offerings to others, finding reward
in the fruits of generosity. For example, we may give
material objects so as to support the comfort and
convenience of others in general: The fruits of our
generosity are bound to find their way back to us. Or we
may be magnanimous in ways that don't involve material
objects. For instance, when other people mistreat or
insult us through thoughtlessness or carelessness, we
forgive them and don't let our thoughts dwell on their
faults and errors. This is called the gift of
forgiveness (abhaya-dana) or the gift of justice
(dhamma-dana). It brings the highest rewards.
4.
Pañña-sampada: Be a person of mature discernment,
whose thinking is circumspect and whose sense of reason
is in line with the truth.
All four of these
qualities are classed as forms of goodness. If they
haven't yet arisen within you, you should give rise to
them. They will reward you with well-being in body and
mind.
D.
Make a persistent effort to maintain the good in both of
its aspects: cause and effect. In other words, keep up
whatever good you have been doing; and as for the
results -- mental comfort, ease and light-heartedness --
maintain that sense of ease so that it can develop and
grow, just as a mother hen guards her eggs until they
turn into baby chicks with feathers, tails, sharp beaks,
and strong wings, able to fend for themselves.
The results of the good
we have done, if we care for them well, are bound to
develop until they take us to higher levels of
attainment. For instance, when our hearts have had their
full measure of mundane happiness, so that we develop a
sense of enough, we're bound to search for other forms
of happiness in the area of the Dhamma, developing our
virtue, concentration, and discernment to full maturity
so as to gain release from all suffering and stress,
meeting with the peerless ease described in the phrase,
Nibbanam paramam
sukham:
Nibbana is the ultimate ease, invariable and unchanging.
When we have done good
in full measure and have maintained it well until it's
firmly established within us, we should then make the
effort to use that good with discretion so as to benefit
people in general. In short: Do what's good, maintain
what's good, and have a sense of how to use what's good
-- in keeping with time, place, and situation -- so as
to give rise to the greatest benefit and happiness.
Whoever can do all of this ranks as a person established
in Right Effort.
VII.
Right Mindfulness.
There are four foundations of mindfulness or frames of
reference for establishing the mind in concentration --
A.
Contemplation of the body as a frame of reference: Focus
mindfulness on the body as your frame of reference. The
word "body" refers to what is produced from the balance
of the elements or properties (dhatu): earth --
the solid parts, such as hair of the head, hair of the
body, nails, teeth, skin, etc.; water -- the liquid
parts, e.g., saliva, catarrh, blood, etc.; fire --
warmth, e.g., the fires of digestion; wind (motion) --
e.g., the breath; space -- the empty places between the
other elements that allow them to come together in
proper proportion; consciousness -- the awareness that
permeates and brings together the other elements in a
balanced way so that they form a body. There are four
ways of looking at the body --
1.
Outer bodies: This refers to the bodies of other people.
When you see them, focus on the symptoms of the body
that appear externally -- as when you see a child
suffering pain in the process of being born, or a person
suffering a disease that impairs or cripples the body,
or a person suffering the pains and inconveniences of
old age, or a dead person, which is something
disconcerting to people the world over. When you see
these things, be mindful to hold your reactions in check
and reflect on your own condition -- that you, too, are
subject to these things -- so that you will feel
motivated to start right in developing the virtues that
will serve you as a solid mainstay beyond the reach of
birth, aging, illness, and death. Then reflect again on
your own body -- the "inner body" -- as your next frame
of reference.
2.
The inner body: the meeting place of the six elements --
earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness --
the body itself forming the first four. Center your
mindfulness in the body, considering it from four
angles:
a.
Consider it as a group of elements.
b.
Separate it into its 32 parts (hair of the head, hair of
the body, etc.).
c.
Consider how the mingling of the elements leads to such
forms of filthiness as saliva, mucus, blood, lymph, and
pus, which permeate throughout the body.
d.
Consider it as inconstant -- it's unstable, always
changing and deteriorating; as stressful
-- it can't last -- no
matter what good or evil you may do, it changes with
every in-and-out breath; and as not-self -- some of its
aspects, no matter how you try to prevent them, can't
help following their own inherent nature.
The body, viewed from
any of these four aspects, can serve as a frame of
reference. But although our frame of reference may be
right, if we aren't circumspect and fully aware, or if
we practice in a misguided way, we can come to see wrong
as right to the point where our perceptions become
skewed. For example, if we see an old person, a sick
person or a dead person, we may become so depressed and
despondent that we don't want to do any work at all, on
the level of either the world or the Dhamma, and instead
want simply to die so as to get away from it all. Or in
examining the elements -- earth, water, fire, wind,
space, and consciousness -- we may come to the
conclusion that what's inside is nothing but elements,
what's outside is nothing but elements, and we can't see
anything above and beyond this, so that our perception
of things becomes skewed, seeing that there's no "man,"
no "woman." This is what can lead monks to sleep with
women and abandon their precepts, eating food in the
evening and drinking alcohol, thinking that it's only
elements eating elements so there shouldn't be any harm.
Or we may consider the filthy and unattractive aspects
of the body until we've reach a point where things seem
so foul and disgusting that we can't eat at all and
simply want to escape. Some people, on reaching this
point, want to jump off a cliff or into the river to
drown. Or we may view things as inconstant, stressful,
and not-self, but if we act deludedly, without being
circumspect in our discernment, the mind can become a
turmoil. If our foundation -- our concentration -- isn't
strong enough for this sort of investigation, it can
lead to a distressing sense of alienation, of being
trapped in the body. This is called skewed perception,
and it can lead to corruptions of insight
(vipassanupakkilesa), all because we aren't
circumspect and skilled in training the mind. We may
feel that we already know, but knowledge is no match for
experience, as in the old saying,
"To know is no match for having done.
A son is no match for his father."
So in dealing with this
frame of reference, if we want our path to be smooth and
convenient, with no stumps or thorns, we should focus on
the sensation of the body in and of itself, i.e., on one
of the elements as experienced in the body, such as the
breath.
3.
The body in and of itself: Focus on a single aspect of
the body, such as the in-and-out breath. Don't pay
attention to any other aspects of the body. Keep track
of just the breath sensations. For example, when the
breath comes in long and goes out long, be aware of it.
Focus on being aware at all times of whether your
breathing feels easy or difficult. If any part of the
body feels uncomfortable, adjust your breathing so that
all parts of the body feel comfortable with both the
in-breath and the out, and so that the mind doesn't
loosen its hold and run after any outside allusions to
past or future, which are the sources of the Hindrances
(nivarana). Be intent on looking after the
in-and-out breath, adjusting it and letting it spread so
as to connect and coordinate with the other aspects of
the breath in the body, just as the air stream in a
Coleman lantern spreads kerosene throughout the threads
of the mantle. One of the preliminary signs (uggaha
nimitta) of the breath will then appear: a sense of
relief-giving brightness filling the heart, or a lump or
ball of white, like cotton-wool. The body will feel at
peace -- refreshed and full. The properties (dhatu)
of the body will be balanced and won't interfere or
conflict with one another. This is termed
kaya-passaddhi, kaya-viveka -- serenity and
solitude of the body.
As for awareness, it's
expanded and broad -- mahaggatam cittam --
sensitive throughout to every part of the body.
Mindfulness is also expanded, spreading throughout the
body. This is called the great frame of reference,
enabling you to know how cause and effect operate within
the body. You'll see which kinds of breath create, which
kinds maintain, and which kinds destroy. You'll see
feelings of breath arising, remaining, and disbanding;
liquid feelings arising, remaining, and disbanding;
solid feelings arising, remaining, and disbanding;
feelings of warmth arising, remaining, and disbanding;
feelings of space arising, remaining, and disbanding;
you'll see consciousness of these various aspects
arising, remaining, and disbanding. All of this you will
know without having to drag in any outside knowledge to
smother the awareness that exists on its own, by its
very nature, within you, and is always there to tell you
the truth. This is termed mindfulness and alertness in
full measure. It appears as a result of self-training
and is called "paccattam": something that exists
on its own, knows on its own, and that each person can
know only for him or her self.
4.
The body in the mind: When the breath is in good order,
clean and bright, and the heart is clear, then internal
visions may appear from the power of thought. Whatever
you may think of, you can make appear as an image --
near or far, subtle or gross, giving rise to knowledge
or completely lacking in knowledge, true or false. If
you're circumspect, mindful, and alert, these things can
give rise to knowledge and cognitive skill. If you
aren't, you may fall for the images you see. For
example, you may think of going somewhere and then see
an image of yourself floating in that direction. You
center your awareness in the image and float along with
your thoughts until you get carried away, losing track
of where you originally were. This way, you get
engrossed in traveling through heaven or hell, meeting
with good things and bad, being pleased or upset by what
you see. As a result, your concentration degenerates
because you aren't wise to the nature of the image of
the body in the mind.
If, though, you can
think to restrain your train of thought and focus on the
image as a phenomenon in the present, the image will
return to join your primary sense of the body. You'll
then see that they are equal in nature. Neither is
superior to the other. The nature of each is to arise,
remain, and then dissolve. Awareness is simply
awareness, and sensations are simply sensations. Don't
fasten onto either. Let go of them and be neutral. Be
thoroughly mindful and alert with each mental moment.
This level of sensation, if you're adept and
knowledgeable, can lead to knowledge of previous lives
(pubbenivasanussati-ñana), knowledge of where
living beings are reborn after death
(cutupapata-ñana), and knowledge that does away with
the fermentations of defilement (asavakkhaya-ñana).
If you aren't wise to this level of sensation, though,
it can lead to ignorance, craving, and attachment,
causing the level of your practice to degenerate.
The image or sensation
that arises through the power of the mind is sometimes
called the rebirth body or the astral body. But even so,
you shouldn't become attached to it. Only then can you
be said to be keeping track of the body as a frame of
reference on this level.
B.
Contemplation of feelings as a frame of reference: The
mental act of "tasting" or "savoring" the objects of the
mind -- e.g., taking pleasure or displeasure in them --
is termed vedana, or feeling. If we class
feelings according to flavor, there are three --
1.
Sukha-vedana: pleasure and ease for body and
mind.
2.
Dukkha-vedana: stress and pain for body and mind.
3.
Upekkha-vedana: neutral feelings, neither
pleasure nor pain.
If we class them
according to range or source, there are four:
1.
Outer feelings: feelings that arise by way of the senses
-- as when the eye meets with a visual object, the ear
with a sound, the nose with a smell, the tongue with a
taste, the body with a tactile sensation -- and a
feeling arises in one's awareness: contented
(somanassa-vedana), discontented
(domanassa-vedana), or neutral (upekkha-vedana).
2.
Inner feelings: feelings that arise within the body, as
when any of the four properties -- earth, water, fire,
or wind -- change either through our present intentions
or through the results of past actions, giving rise to
pleasure, pain, or neutral feelings.
3.
Feelings in and of themselves: feelings regarded simply
as part of the stream of feelings. For example,
pleasure, pain, and neutral feelings occur in different
mental moments; they don't all arise in the same moment.
When one of them arises, such as pain, focus right on
what is present. If pleasure arises, keep the mind
focused in the pleasure. Don't let it stray to other
objects that may be better or worse. Stay with the
feeling until you know its truth: in other words, until
you know whether it's physical pleasure or mental
pleasure, whether it results from past actions or from
what you are doing in the present. Only when your
mindfulness is focused in this way can you be said to be
viewing feelings in and of themselves.
4.
Feelings in the mind: moods that arise in the mind,
independent of any object. Simply by thinking we can
give rise to pleasure or pain, good or bad, accomplished
entirely through the heart.
Each of these four
kinds of feelings can serve as an object for
tranquillity and insight meditation. Each can serve as a
basis for knowledge.
C.
Contemplation of the mind as a frame of reference:
taking as our preoccupation states that arise in the
mind. The term "mind" (citta) refers to two
conditions -- awareness and thinking. Awareness of
thinking can cause the mind to take on different states,
good or bad. If we classify these states by their
characteristics, there are three: good, bad, and
neutral.
1.
Good mental states (kusala-citta) are of three
sorts --
a.
Vitaraga-citta: the mind when it disentangles
itself from its desire or fascination with objects it
likes or finds pleasing.
b.
Vitadosa-citta: the mind when it isn't incited or
roused to irritation by its objects.
c.
Vitamoha-citta: the mind when it isn't deluded,
intoxicated, or outwitted by its objects.
2.
Bad mental states (akusala-citta) are also of
three sorts --
a.
Saraga-citta: the mind engrossed in its
affections and desires.
b.
Sadosa-citta: the mind irritated or aroused to
anger.
c.
Samoha-citta: the mind deluded and ignorant of
the truth.
3.
Neutral mental states, which arise from being neither
pleased nor displeased, or when mental activity
(kiriya) occurs without affecting the condition of
awareness for good or bad -- are called "avyakata":
indeterminate.
If we classify mental
states according to their range or source, there are
three --
1.
Outer mental states: thoughts that run after allusions
to past or future, and may be either contented (this is
termed indulgence in pleasure, kamasukhallikanuyoga)
or discontented (this is termed indulgence in
self-torture, attakilamathanuyoga).
2.
Inner mental states: thoughts that arise within us with
reference to the present, either right or wrong, good or
bad.
3.
Mental states in and of themselves: mental fashioning
(citta-sankhara) -- the act of thinking arising from
awareness, the act of awareness arising from thinking,
taking such forms as consciousness, intellect,
mindfulness, alertness, discernment, knowledge.
Whichever one of these mental states may be arising and
remaining in the present moment, focus your attention
exclusively on it. For example, knowledge of a certain
sort may appear, either on its own or as the result of
deliberation; it may or may not be intended. Whatever
arises, focus your mindfulness and alertness on it until
you know the stages in the workings of the mind;
knowing, for instance, which mental state is the
intentional act (kamma), which the result
(vipaka), and which mere activity (kiriya).
Keep focused exclusively on these states until you can
see mental states simply as mental states, knowledge
simply as knowledge, intelligence as intelligence. Be
thoroughly circumspect, mindful, and discerning at each
mental moment until you are able to let go of all mental
states without being caught up on what they are supposed
to refer to, mean, or represent. Only then can you be
said to be keeping track of mental states in and of
themselves as a frame of reference.
D.
Contemplation of mental qualities as a frame of
reference: Mental qualities (dhamma) that can
serve as bases for mindfulness leading to peace and
respite for the mind are of three kinds --
1.
Outer mental qualities, i.e., the Hindrances, which are
of five sorts --
(a) Kamachanda:
desire for the five types of sensual objects -- visual
objects, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile sensations --
which can cause the mind to become restless.
(b) Byapada:
ill-will; stepping into a mood of discontent that arises
from certain sorts of individuals or situations that,
when we brood on them, cause the mind to focus on what
we find displeasing until it becomes irritated and
aroused.
(c) Thina-middha:
drowsiness, torpor, dullness, giving rise to laziness,
apathy, and discouragement.
(d)
Uddhacca-kukkucca: restlessness and anxiety;
thinking more than we want to or need; thoughts that go
out of control, drifting further and further away until
we may even lose sense of our own body. Thinking that
has no order or bounds is sure to cause harm.
(e) Vicikiccha:
doubt, hesitancy, uncertainty about issues dealing with
the world or the Dhamma: doubt about certain
individuals, about their teachings, about our own
conduct and practices. This comes from not having enough
mindfulness or alertness to keep the mind in check and
from not knowing where the Hindrances come from. We
should realize that -- to put it briefly -- the
Hindrances come from concepts that allude to either the
past or the future. So when we want to ward them off, we
should let go of these concepts and focus our attention
in on the present, and the Hindrances will weaken away.
2.
Inner mental qualities: The skillful mental qualities we
should foster within ourselves are five, counting their
component factors, and four, counting their levels, in
other words --
(a) The first of jhana,
which has five factors:
-- Vitakka:
directed thought, focused on the object of the mind's
concentration, such as the breath.
-- Vicara:
evaluating and adjusting the breath so that it becomes
comfortable to the point where it spreads throughout the
entire body; coordinating and connecting the various
breath-sensations existing within us.
-- Piti:
rapture, refreshment, fullness of body and mind.
-- Sukha:
pleasure, ease of body and mind.
-- Ekaggata:
The mind enters into a single object, such as the
breath; i.e., all five of these factors deal with a
single topic.
(b) The second jhana
has three factors:
-- Piti: The
sense of refreshment and fullness for body and mind
becomes stronger, so that the mind abandons its directed
thought (vitakka).
-- Sukha: The
sense of ease for body and mind becomes greater, so that
it can relieve mental discomfort. This leads the mind to
abandon its evaluating and adjusting (vicara).
-- Ekaggata: The
mind enters into a subtle and gentle level of breath,
with a feeling of spaciousness and relief throughout the
body. This subtle breath bathes and pervades the entire
body, so that the mind becomes absolutely snug with its
one object.
(c) The third jhana:
The singleness of the mind's object becomes even more
refined, leaving just a feeling of ease of body and
mind, the result of steadying the mind in a single
object. This is called ekaggata-sukha -- all that
remains is singleness and ease.
(d) The fourth jhana:
Upekkha -- the breath sensations in the body are
still, so that we can do without the in-and-out breath.
The still breath fills all the various parts of the
body. The four physical properties are all quiet and
still. The mind is still, having abandoned past and
future, entering into its object that forms the present.
The mind is firmly focused on one object: This is
ekaggata, the second factor of the fourth jhana.
Mindfulness and alertness are present in full measure
and thus give rise to mental brightness. When
mindfulness is strong, it turns into cognitive skill
(vijja); when alertness is strong, it turns into
intuitive insight (vipassana-ñana), seeing the
truth of physical sensations (rupa) and mental
acts (nama), whether near or far, gross or
subtle, our own or those of others. This knowledge
appears exclusively within our own body and mind, and we
can realize it on our own: This is what is meant by the
word, "paccattam."
3.
Mental qualities in and of themselves. This refers to
mental qualities of another level that appear after the
above qualities have been developed. Intuitive knowledge
arises, e.g., --
"Dhamma-cakkhum
udapadi":
The eye of the mind, which sees in terms of the Dhamma,
arises within one.
"Ñanam udapadi":
intuitive sensitivity, thoroughly penetrating. This
refers to the three forms of intuitive knowledge
beginning with the ability to remember previous lives.
"Pañña udapadi":
Liberating discernment arises.
"Vijja udapadi":
Cognitive skill -- clear, open, penetrating, and true --
arises within one.
These forms of
knowledge arise on their own -- not for ordinary people,
but for those who have developed concentration.
Discernment, here, refers to the discernment that comes
from mental training and development, not to the
ordinary discernment coming from concepts we've
remembered or thought out. This is discernment that
arises right at the heart. Cognitive skill (vijja),
here, is a high level of knowledge, termed pariññaya
dhamma: thorough comprehension that arises within
from having explored the four Noble Truths, beginning
with stress (dukkha), which is the result of such
causes (samudaya) as ignorance and craving.
Knowledge arises, enabling us to cut the tap root of
stress by performing the task of abandoning the cause.
When this is done, stress disbands and ceases; the cause
doesn't flare up again: This is nirodha. And the
knowledge that steps in to eliminate the cause of stress
is the Path (magga), the way leading to release
from all stress and suffering, made possible by the eye
of the mind composed of --
ñana-cakkhu:
intuition as a means of vision;
pañña-cakkhu: discernment as a means of vision;
vijja-cakkhu: cognitive skill as a means of
vision.
This is the eye of the
mind.
In short, we have:
dukkha, physical and mental stress; and samudaya,
the cause of stress. These two are one pair of cause and
effect functioning in the world. Another pair is:
nirodha, the disbanding and cessation of all stress,
and magga-citta, the mind following the right
path, causing the causes of stress -- ignorance and
craving -- to disband. In other words, when the physical
and mental stress from which we suffer is ended through
the power of the mind on the Path, the mind is freed
from all disruptions and fermentations, and doesn't
latch onto cause or effect, pleasure or pain, good or
evil, the world or the Dhamma. It abandons all
supposings, assumptions, wordings, and conventions. This
is deathlessness (amata dhamma), a quality that
doesn't arise, doesn't change, doesn't vanish or
disband, and that doesn't fasten onto any quality at
all. In other words, it can let go of conditioned
phenomena (sankhata dhamma) and doesn't fasten
onto unconditioned phenomena (asankhata dhamma).
It lets go of each phenomenon in line with that
phenomenon's own true nature. Thus the saying: "Sabbe
dhamma anatta" -- No phenomenon is the self; the
self isn't any phenomenon. All supposings and
assumptions -- all meanings -- are abandoned. This is
nibbana.
All of this is called
seeing mental qualities in and of themselves -- i.e.,
seeing the higher aspect of mental qualities that arises
from their more common side.
VIII.
Right Concentration,
the way to discernment, knowledge and release: If we
class concentration according to how it's practiced in
general, there are two sorts: right and wrong.
A.
Wrong Concentration: Why is it called wrong? Because it
doesn't give rise to the liberating insight that leads
to the transcendent qualities. For example, after
attaining a certain amount of concentration, we may use
it in the wrong way, as in magic -- hypnotizing other
people or spirits of the dead so as to have them in our
power, or exerting magnetic attraction so as to seduce
or dupe other people -- all of which causes the heart to
become deceitful and dishonest. Or we may use
concentration to cast spells and practice sorcery,
displaying powers in hopes of material reward. All of
these things are based on nothing more than momentary
(khanika) concentration.
Another type of Wrong
Concentration is that used to develop forms of knowledge
falling outside of the Buddha's teachings and belonging
to yogic doctrines and practices: for example, staring
at an external object -- such as the sun or the moon --
or at certain kinds of internal objects. When the mind
becomes steady for a moment, you lose your sense of the
body and become fastened on the object to the point
where your mindfulness and alertness lose their
moorings. You then drift along in the wake of the object
in whatever direction your thoughts may take you: up to
see heaven or down to see hell, seeing true things and
false mixed together, liking or disliking what you see,
losing your bearings, lacking the mindfulness and
alertness that form the present.
Another instance of
Wrong Concentration is when -- after you've begun
practicing to the point where you've attained threshold
(upacara) concentration -- you then stare down on
the present, focusing, say, on the properties of breath,
fire or earth, forbidding the mind to think; staring
down, getting into a trance until the property becomes
more and more refined, the mind becomes more and more
refined; using force to suppress the mind until
awareness becomes so dim that you lose mindfulness and
alertness and all sense of the body and mind: Everything
is absolutely snuffed out and still, with no
self-awareness. This is called the plane of
non-perception (asaññi-bhava), where you have no
perception of anything at all. Your awareness isn't
well-rounded, your mindfulness lacks circumspection, and
as a result discernment has no chance to arise. This is
called Wrong Concentration, Wrong Release, a mental
blank -- no awareness of past, present or future.
Another instance of
Wrong Concentration is when we can give rise to
momentary concentration, threshold concentration, all
the way to the four levels of jhana, but aren't adept at
entering and leaving these levels, so that we focus in
until only the property of consciousness is left, with
no sense of the body: This is called arupa jhana.
Bodily processes disappear, leaving only the four types
of mental acts, which form the four levels of arupa
jhana [see The Craft of the Heart], the first
being when we focus on a feeling of space or emptiness.
The mind attains such a relaxed sense of pleasure that
we may take it to be a transcendent state or nibbana,
and so we search no further, becoming idle and lazy,
making no further effort because we assume that we've
finished our task.
In short, we simply
think, or focus, without having any finesse in what
we're doing -- entering, leaving, or staying in place --
and as a result our concentration becomes wrong.
B.
Right Concentration: This starts with threshold
concentration, which acts as the basis for the four
levels of jhana, beginning with the first:
vitakka, thinking of whichever aspect of the body
you choose to take as your object, such as the four
physical properties, starting with the in-and-out
breath. And then vicara: adjusting, expanding,
letting the breath sensations flow throughout the body
and at the same time evaluating the results you obtain.
For instance, if the body feels uncomfortable or
constricted, adjust the breath until it feels right
throughout the body. The mind then sticks to its single
object: This is termed ekaggata. When mindfulness
enters into the body, keeping the breath in mind, and
alertness is present in full measure, keeping track of
the causes that produce results congenial to body and
mind, then your sense of the body will benefit. Bathed
with mindfulness and alertness, it feels light,
malleable and full -- saturated with the power of
mindfulness and alertness. The mind also feels full:
This is termed piti. When both body and mind are
full, they grow quiet, like a child who, having eaten
his fill, rests quiet and content. This is the cause of
pleasure on the level of the Dhamma, termed sukha.
These factors, taken together, form one stage of Right
Concentration.
As you continue
practicing for a length of time, the sense of fullness
and pleasure in the body becomes greater. Ekaggata
-- interest and absorption in your one object -- becomes
more intense because you have seen the results it
produces. The mind becomes steady and determined,
focused with full mindfulness and alertness, thoroughly
aware of both body and mind, and thus you can let go of
your thinking and evaluating, and enter the second jhana.
The second jhana has
three factors. Ekaggata: Keep the mind with its
one object, the breath, which is now more subtle and
refined than before, leaving simply a feeling of piti,
fullness of body and mind. The sensations of the body
don't clash with one another. The four properties --
earth, water, fire, and wind -- are properly balanced.
The mind and body don't interfere with each other, so
both feel full and satisfied. The body feels pleasant
(sukha) -- solitary and quiet. The mind, too, feels
pleasant and at ease -- solitary and quiet. When you're
mindful, alert, and adept at doing this -- entering,
staying in place, and withdrawing -- side-benefits will
result. For example, knowledge of certain matters will
arise either on its own or after you've posed a question
in the mind. Doubts about certain issues will be put to
rest. As the sense of bodily pleasure grows stronger,
the sense of mental pleasure and ease grows stronger as
well, and thus you can let go of the sense of fullness.
Awareness at this point becomes refined and so can
detect a subtle level of the breath that feels bright,
open, soothing, and spacious. This enables you to go on
to the third jhana.
The third jhana has two
factors, pleasure and singleness of preoccupation. The
pleasure you've been experiencing begins to waver in
flashes as it reaches saturation point and begins to
change. You thus become aware of another, subtler level
of sensation, and so the mind shifts to a sense of
openness and emptiness. The breath grows still, with no
moving in or out, full in every part of the body. This
allows you to let go of the sense of pleasure. The mind
enters this stage through the power of mindfulness and
alertness. Awareness is tranquil and still, bright in
the present, steady and on its own. It lets go of the
breath and is simply observant. The mind is still, with
no shifting back and forth. Both breath and mind are
independent. The mind can let down its burdens and
cares. The heart is solitary and one, infused with
mindfulness and alertness. When you reach this stage and
stay with it properly, you're practicing the fourth
jhana.
The fourth jhana has
two factors. Ekaggata: Your object becomes
absolutely one. Upekkha: You can let go of all
thoughts of past and future; the five Hindrances are
completely cut away. The mind is solitary, clear, and
radiant. The six properties -- earth, water, fire, wind,
space, and consciousness -- become radiant. The heart
feels spacious and clear, thoroughly aware all around
through the power of mindfulness and alertness. As
mindfulness becomes tempered and strong, it turns into
intuitive knowledge, enabling you to see the true nature
of body and mind, sensations and mental acts, past,
present, and future.
When this happens, if
you aren't skilled, you can become excited or upset. In
other words, you may develop pubbenivasanussati-ñana,
the ability to remember previous lives. If what you see
is good, you may get engrossed, which will cause your
mindfulness and alertness to weaken. If what you see is
bad or displeasing, you may get upset or distressed, so
intent on what you remember that your sense of the
present is weakened.
Or you may develop
cutupapata-ñana: The mind focuses on the affairs of
other individuals, and you see them as they die and are
reborn on differing levels. If you get carried away with
what you see, your reference to the present will weaken.
If you find this happening, you should take the mind in
hand. If anything pleasing arises, hold back and keep
mindfulness firm. Don't let yourself fall into
kamasukhallikanuyoga, contentment and delight. If
anything bad or displeasing arises, hold back -- because
it can lead to attakilamathanuyoga,
discontentment and distress. Draw the mind into the
present and guard against all thoughts of approval and
disapproval. Keep the mind neutral. This is the middle
way, the mental attitude that forms the Path and gives
rise to another level of awareness in which you realize,
for instance, how inconstant it is to be a living being:
When things go well, you're happy and pleased; when
things go badly, you're pained and upset. This awareness
enables you truly to know the physical sensations and
mental acts you're experiencing and leads to a sense of
disenchantment, termed nibbida-ñana. You see all
fashionings as inconstant, harmful, stressful, and hard
to bear, as lying beyond the control of the heart.
At this point, the mind
disentangles itself: This is termed viraga-dhamma,
dispassion. It feels no desire or attraction; it doesn't
gulp down or lie fermenting in sensations or mental
acts, past, present, or future. It develops a special
level of intuition that comes from within. What you
never before knew, now you know; what you never before
met with, now you see, through the power of mindfulness
and alertness gathering in at a single point and turning
into asavakkhaya-ñana, enabling you to
disentangle and free yourself from mundane states of
mind -- in proportion to the extent of your practice --
and so attain the transcendent qualities, beginning with
stream-entry.
All of this is termed
Right Concentration: being skilled at entering, staying
in place, and withdrawing, giving rise to --
Right Intuition:
correct, profound and penetrating;
Right View: correct
views, in line with the truth;
Right Practice: in
which you conduct yourself with full circumspection in
all aspects of the triple training, with virtue,
concentration, and discernment coming together in the
heart.
This, then, is Right
Concentration. For the most part, people who have
attained true insight have done so in the four levels of
jhana. Although there may be others who have gone wrong
in the practice of jhana, we'll achieve the proper
results if we study so as to gain an understanding and
adjust our practice so as to bring it into line.
This ends the
discussion of Right Concentration.
All that we have
discussed so far can be summarized under three headings:
Right View and Right Resolve come under the heading of
discernment; Right Speech, Right Action, and Right
Livelihood under the heading of virtue; and Right
Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration under
the heading of concentration. So altogether we have
virtue, concentration and discernment.
* * * * * * * *
The
First Heading: Virtue
There are three levels
of virtue --
1.
Hetthima-sila: normalcy of word and deed, which
consists of three kinds of bodily acts -- not killing,
not stealing, not engaging in sexual misconduct; and
four kinds of speech -- not lying, not speaking
divisively, not saying anything coarse or abusive, not
speaking idly. If we class virtue on this level
according to the wording of the precepts and the groups
of people who observe them, there are four -- the five
precepts, the eight, the ten, and the 227 precepts --
all of which deal with aspects of behavior that should
be abandoned, termed pahana-kicca. At the same
time, the Buddha directed us to develop good manners and
proper conduct in the use of the four necessities of
life -- food, clothing, shelter, and medicine -- so that
our conduct in terms of thought, word, and deed will be
orderly and becoming. This aspect is termed
bhavana-kicca, behavior we should work at developing
correctly.
Observance of these
precepts or rules -- dealing merely with words and deeds
-- forms the lower or preliminary level of virtue, which
is what makes us into full-fledged human beings
(manussa-sampatti).
2.
Majjhima-sila: the medium level of virtue, i.e.,
keeping watch over your words and deeds so that they
cause no harm; and, in addition, keeping watch over your
thoughts so as to keep our mental kamma upright in three
ways --
a.
Anabhijjha-visamalobha: not coveting things that
do not belong to you and that lie beyond your scope or
powers; not focusing your thoughts on such things; not
building what are called castles in the air. The Buddha
taught us to tend to the wealth we already have so that
it can grow on its own. The wealth we already have, if
we use our intelligence and ingenuity, will draw more
wealth our way without our having to waste energy by
being covetous or greedy. For example, suppose we have a
single banana tree: If we water it, give it fertilizer,
loosen the soil around its roots, and protect it from
dangers, our single banana tree will eventually give
rise to an increase of other banana trees. In other
words, if we're intelligent we can turn whatever wealth
we have into a basis for a livelihood. But if we lack
intelligence -- if our hearts simply want to get,
without wanting work -- then even if we acquire a great
deal of wealth, we won't be able to support ourselves.
Thus, greed of this sort, in which we focus our desires
above and beyond our capabilities, is classed as a wrong
kind of mental action.
b.
Abyapada: abandoning thoughts of ill will,
hatred, and vengeance, and developing thoughts of good
will instead; thinking of the good aspects of the people
who have angered us. When people make us angry it comes
from the fact that our dealings with them -- in which we
associate with and assist one another -- sometimes lead
to disappointment. This gives rise to dislike and
irritation, which in turn cause us to brood, so that we
develop hurt feelings that grow into anger and thoughts
of retaliation. Thus we should regard such people from
many angles, for ordinarily as human beings they should
have some good to them. If they don't act well
toward us, they may at least speak well to us. Or if
they don't act or speak well to us, perhaps their
thoughts may be well-meaning to at least some extent.
Thus, when you find your thoughts heading in the
direction of anger or dislike, you should sit down and
think in two ways --
(1)
Try to think of whatever ways that person has been good
to you. When these things come to mind, they'll give
rise to feelings of affection, love, and good will. This
is one way.
(2)
Anger is something worthless, like the scum floating on
the surface of a lake. If we're stupid, we won't get to
drink the clean water that lies underneath; or if we
drink the scum, we may catch a disease. A person who is
bad to you is like someone sunk in filth. If you're
stupid enough to hate or be angry with such people, it's
as if you wanted to go sit in the filth with them. Is
that what you want? Think about this until any thoughts
of ill will and anger disappear.
c.
Samma-ditthi: abandoning wrong views and mental
darkness. If our minds lack the proper training and
education, we may come to think that we and all other
living beings are born simply as accidents of nature;
that "father" and "mother" have no special meaning; that
good and evil don't exist. Such views deviate from the
truth and can dissuade us from restraining the evil that
lies within us and from searching for and fostering the
good. To believe that there's no good or evil, that
death is annihilation, is Wrong View -- a product of
short-sighted thinking and poor discernment, seeing
things for what they aren't. So we should abandon such
views and educate ourselves, searching for knowledge of
the Dhamma and associating with people wiser than we, so
that they can show us the bright path. We'll then be
able to reform our views and make them Right, which is
one form of mental uprightness.
Virtue on this level,
when we can maintain it well, will qualify us to be
heavenly beings. The qualities of heavenly beings, which
grow out of human values, will turn us into human beings
who are divine in our virtues, for to guard our
thoughts, words, and deeds means that we qualify for
heaven in this lifetime. This is one aspect of the merit
developed by a person who observes the middle level of
virtue.
3.
Uparima-sila: higher virtue, where virtue merges
with the Dhamma in the area of mental activity. There
are two sides to higher virtue --
a.
Pahana-kicca: qualities to be abandoned, which
are of five sorts --
(1)
Kamachanda: affection, desire, laxity,
infatuation.
(2) Byapada: ill will and hatred.
(3) Thina-middha: discouragement,
drowsiness, sloth.
(4) Uddhacca-kukkucca: restlessness and
anxiety.
(5) Vicikiccha: doubt, uncertainty,
indecision.
Discussion
1.
Ill will (byapada) lies at the essence of killing
(panatipata), for it causes us to destroy our own
goodness and that of others -- and when our minds can
kill off our own goodness, what's to keep us from
killing other people and animals as well?
2.
Restlessness (uddhacca) lies at the essence of
taking what isn't given (adinnadana). The mind
wanders about, taking hold of matters concerning other
people, sometimes their good points, sometimes their
bad. To fasten onto their good points isn't too serious,
for it can give us at least some nourishment. As
long as we're going to steal other people's business and
make it our own, we might as well take their silver and
gold. Their bad points, though, are like trash they've
thrown away -- scraps and bones, with nothing of any
substance -- and yet even so we let the mind feed on
them. To know that other people are possessive of their
bad points and guard them well, and yet still to take
hold of these things to think about, should be classed
as a form of taking what isn't given.
3.
Sensual desires (kamachanda) lie at the essence
of sensual misconduct. The mind feels an attraction for
sensual objects -- thoughts of past or future sights,
sounds, smells, tastes, or tactile sensations -- or for
sensual defilements -- passion, aversion, or delusion --
to the point where we forget ourselves. Mental states
such as these can be said to overstep the bounds of
propriety in sensual matters.
4.
Doubt (vicikiccha) lies at the essence of lying.
In other words, our minds are unsure, with nothing
reliable or true to them. We have no firm principles and
so drift along under the influence of all kinds of
thoughts and preoccupations.
5.
Drowsiness (thina-middha) is intoxication --
discouragement, dullness, forgetfulness, with no
mindfulness or restraint watching over the mind. This is
what it means to be drugged or drunk.
All of these unskillful
qualities are things we should eliminate by training the
heart along the lines of:
b.
Bhavana-kicca: qualities to be developed --
1.
Mindfulness (sati): Start out by directing your
thoughts to an object, such as your in-and-out
breathing. Use mindfulness to steady the mind in its
object throughout both the in-breath and the out-.
Vitakka, this sort of directed thought, is what
kills off sensual desires, in that the discipline of
mindfulness keeps the mind from slipping off into
external objects.
2.
Vicara: Evaluate and be observant. Be sensitive
to whether or not you've received a sense of comfort and
relaxation from your in- and out-breathing. If not, tend
to the breath and adjust it in a variety of ways: e.g.,
in long and out long, in long and out short, in short
and out short, in short and out long, in slow and out
slow, in fast and out fast, in gently and out gently, in
strong and out strong, in throughout the body and out
throughout the body. Adjust the breath until it gives
good results to both body and mind, and you'll be able
to kill off feelings of ill will and hatred.
3.
Piti: When you get good results -- for instance,
when the subtle breath sensations in the body merge and
flow together, permeating the entire sense of the body
-- the breath is like an electric wire; the various
parts of the body, such as the bones, are like
electricity poles; mindfulness and alertness are like a
power source; and awareness is thus bright and radiant.
Both body and mind feel satisfied and full. This is
piti, or rapture, which can kill off feelings of
drowsiness.
4.
Sukha: Now that feelings of restlessness and
anxiety have disappeared, a sense of pleasure and ease
for body and mind arises. This pleasure is what kills
off restlessness.
5.
Ekaggata: Doubts and uncertainty fade into the
distance. The mind reaches oneness of object in a state
of normalcy and equilibrium. This normalcy of mind,
which is maintained through the power of the discipline
of mindfulness (sati-vinaya), forms the essence
of virtue: firmness, steadiness, stability. And the
resulting flavor or nourishment of virtue is
tranquillity, light-heartedness, and a sense of
independence for the mind. When freedom of this sort
arises within us, this is called the development of
silanussati, the mindfulness of virtue. This is
virtue that attains excellence -- leading to the paths,
their fruitions, and nibbana -- and thus can be
called uparima-sila, higher virtue.
To summarize, there are
three levels of virtue: external, intermediate, and
internal. In ultimate terms, however, there are two --
1.
Mundane virtue: virtue connected with the world, in
which we maintain the principles of ordinary human
morality but are as yet unable to reach the transcendent
levels: stream-entry, once-returning, non-returning, and
Arahantship. We can't yet cut the Fetters (sanyojana)
that tie the heart to the influences of all the worlds.
This is thus called mundane virtue.
2.
Transcendent virtue: virtue that's constant and sure,
going straight to the heart, bathing the heart with its
nourishment. This arises from the practice of
tranquillity meditation and insight meditation.
Tranquillity meditation forms the cause, and insight
meditation the result: discovering the true nature of
the elements, aggregates (khandhas), and senses;
seeing clearly the four Noble Truths, in proportion to
our practice of the Path, abandoning the first three of
the Fetters --
a.
Sakkaya-ditthi (self-identity views): the views
that see the body or the aggregates as in the self or as
belonging to the self. Ordinarily, we may be convinced
that views of this sort are mistaken, yet we can't
really abandon them. But when we clearly see that
they're wrong for sure, this is called Right View --
seeing things as they truly are -- which can eliminate
such wrong views as seeing the body as belonging to the
self, or the self as the five aggregates, or the five
aggregates as in the self.
b.
Vicikiccha: doubt concerning what's genuine and
true, and what's counterfeit and false. The power of
Right View allows us to see that the quality to which we
awaken exists at all times; and that the true qualities
enabling us to awaken also exist and are made effective
through the power of the practices we're following. Our
knowledge is definite and true. Our doubts concerning
the virtues of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha are
cleared up for good. This is called becoming a
niyata-puggala, a person who is certain and sure.
c.
Silabbata-paramasa: When the heart abandons this
Fetter, it no longer fondles theories concerning moral
virtue; it's no longer stuck merely on the level of
manners and activities. Good and evil are
accomplished through the heart; activities and actions
are something separate. Even though people who reach
this level do good -- taking the precepts, making gifts
and offerings, or meditating in line with the good
customs of the world -- they're not caught up on any of
these things, because their hearts have reached the
nourishment of virtue. They aren't stuck on the
particulars (byanjana), i.e., their actions and
activities; nor are they stuck on the purpose
(attha), i.e., the meaning or intent of their
various good manners. Their hearts dwell in the
nourishment of virtue: tranquillity, stability, normalcy
of mind. Just as a person who has felt the nourishment
that comes from food permeating his body isn't stuck on
either the food or its flavor -- because he's received
the benefits of the nourishment it provides -- in the
same way, the hearts of people who have reached the
essence of virtue are no longer stuck on manners or
activities, particulars or purposes, because they've
tasted virtue's nourishment.
This is thus classed as
transcendent virtue, the first stage of nibbana.
Even though such people may be destined for further
rebirth, they're special people, apart from the
ordinary. Any person whose practice reaches this level
can be counted as fortunate, as having received
dependable wealth, like ingots of gold. Just as gold can
be used as currency all over the world because it has
special value for all human beings -- unlike paper
currency, whose use is limited to specific countries --
in the same way, a heart that's truly attained virtue
has a value in this life that will remain constant in
lives to come. Thus, a person who has reached this level
has received part of the Noble Wealth of those who
practice the religion.
* * * * * * * *
The
Second Heading: Concentration
Concentration has three
levels --
1.
Kamavacara-khanika-samadhi: (momentary
concentration in the sensory realm): The mind keeps
thinking, coming to rest, and running along after
skillful preoccupations -- either internal or external
-- on the sensory level (kamavacara-kusala):
sights, sounds, smells, flavors, tactile sensations, or
ideas. An example of this is when the mind becomes quiet
and rested for a moment as we sit chanting or listening
to a sermon. In other words, the mind grows still for
momentary periods in the same way that a person walks:
One foot takes a step while the other foot rests on the
ground, providing the energy needed to reach one's goal.
This is thus called momentary concentration, something
possessed by people all over the world. Whether or not
we practice concentration, the mind is always behaving
this way by its very nature. This is what is called the
"bhavanga-citta" or "bhavanga-pada": The
mind stops for a moment and then moves on. In developing
higher levels of concentration, we have to start out
with this ordinary level as our basis. Otherwise, the
higher levels probably wouldn't be possible. Still, this
level of concentration can't be used as a basis for
discernment, which is why we have to go further in our
practice.
2.
Rupavacara-upacara-samadhi (threshold
concentration in the realm of form): This refers to the
first jhana, in which the mind comes inward to rest on a
single preoccupation within the body, fixing its
attention, for example, on the in-and-out breath. When
the mind stays with its one object, this is called
ekaggata. At the same time, there's mindfulness
keeping the breath in mind: This is called vitakka.
The mind then adjusts and expands the various aspects of
the breath throughout the entire body, evaluating them
mindfully with complete circumspection: This is called
alertness (sampajañña) or vicara, which is
what is aware of causes and results. Mindfulness, the
cause, is what does the work. Thus vitakka and
vicara cooperate in focusing on the same topic. We
are then aware of the results as they arise -- feelings
of fullness, pleasure, and ease (piti and
sukha) for body and mind. At this point, the mind
lets down its burdens and concerns to rest for a while,
like a person walking along who meets with something
pleasing and attractive, and so stops to look: Both feet
are standing still, stepping neither forward nor back.
If we aren't skilled
enough to go on any further, we'll then retreat. If we
see results -- such as signs and visions -- arising in
the mind, we may get excited and so cause our original
preoccupation to waver or fade. Like a person sitting on
a chair: If he sees something appealing in front of him,
he may become so interested that he leans forward and
reaches out his hand; he may even begin to budge a bit
from his seat or stand up completely. In the same way,
if we get engrossed in visions, thoughts, or views while
we're engaged in threshold concentration, we can become
excited and pleased -- we may even think that we've
reached the transcendent -- and this can cause our
concentration to degenerate. If we try to do it again
and can't, we may then seize the opportunity to say that
we've gone beyond the practice of concentration, so that
we can now take the way of discernment -- thinking,
pondering, and letting go in line with nothing more than
our own views and ideas. This, though, is not likely to
succeed, because our knowledge has no firm basis or
core, like a wheel with no axle or hub: How can it get
anywhere? The power of threshold concentration, if we
don't watch after it well, is bound to deteriorate, and
we'll be left with nothing but old, left-over concepts.
3.
Rupavacara-appana-samadhi (fixed penetration in
the realm of form): This refers to the practice of all
four levels of rupa jhana. The first jhana has five
factors: directed thought, evaluation, fullness,
pleasure, and singleness of preoccupation. The second
level has three: fullness, pleasure, and singleness of
preoccupation. The third has two: pleasure and
singleness of preoccupation; and the fourth has two:
equanimity and singleness of preoccupation.
Discussion
Fixed penetration in
the realm of form means that the mind focuses on the
internal sense of the body, remaining steadily with a
single object -- such as the in-and-out breath -- until
it reaches jhana, beginning with the first level, which
is composed of directed thought, evaluation, fullness,
pleasure, and singleness of preoccupation. When you see
results arising, focus in on those results and they will
then turn into the second level, which has three
factors: fullness, pleasure and singleness of
preoccupation. As your focus becomes stronger, it causes
the sense of fullness to waver, so you can now let go of
that sense of fullness, and your concentration turns
into the third jhana, in which only two factors are
left: pleasure and singleness of preoccupation. The mind
has few burdens; its focus is strong and the sense of
inner light is radiant. This causes the feeling of
pleasure to waver, so that you can let go of that sense
of pleasure, and the mind attains oneness in a very
subtle preoccupation. The preoccupation doesn't waver
and neither does the mind. It stands firm in its
freedom. This is called equanimity and singleness of
preoccupation, which form the fourth jhana. Mindfulness
is powerful; alertness, complete. Both are centered on a
single pre-occupation without getting snagged on any
other allusions or perceptions. This mental state is
called the fourth jhana, which has two factors:
Equanimity is the external attitude of the mind; as for
the real factors, they're mindfulness and singleness,
steady and firm.
The mind experiences a
sense of brightness, the radiance that arises from its
state of fixed penetration. Mindfulness and alertness
are circumspect and all-round, and so give rise to skill
and proficiency in practicing jhana -- in focusing,
staying in place, stepping through the various levels,
withdrawing, going back and forth. When the mind behaves
as you want it to, no matter when you practice, only
then does this truly qualify as fixed penetration, the
basis for the arising of three qualities: intuitive
knowledge (ñana), discernment (pañña) and
cognitive skill (vijja).
Intuitive knowledge
here refers to knowledge or sensitivity of a deep and
extraordinary sort. For example --
Pubbenivasanussati-ñana:
the ability to remember previous lives.
Cutupapata-ñana:
the ability to focus on the death and rebirth of other
living beings -- sometimes in good destinations,
sometimes in bad -- together with the causes that lead
them to be reborn in such ways. This gives rise to a
sense of weariness and disenchantment with sensations
and mental acts, body and mind.
Asavakkhaya-ñana:
knowing how to put an end to the defilements of the
heart in accordance with the knowledge -- the clear
vision of the four Noble Truths -- that accompanies the
particular transcendent path reached. And there are
still other forms of extraordinary knowledge, such as
iddhividhi, the ability to display supernormal
powers, to make an image of oneself appear to other
people; dibbasota, clairaudience; dibbacakkhu,
clairvoyance -- i.e., the ability to see objects at
tremendous distances.
Discernment refers to
discriminating knowledge, clear comprehension, knowledge
in line with the truth. For example --
Attha-patisambhida:
acumen with regard to aims and results; thorough-going
comprehension of cause and effect; knowing, for example,
how stress is caused by ignorance and craving, and how
the disbanding of stress is caused by the intuitive
discernment that forms the Path; comprehending the
meaning and aims of the Buddha's various teachings and
knowing how to explain them so that other people will
understand -- being able, for instance, to summarize a
long passage without distorting its meaning.
Dhamma-patisambhida:
acumen with regard to mental qualities; knowing how to
explain deep and subtle points so that other people will
understand.
Nirutti-patisambhida:
acumen with regard to different languages. According to
the texts, this includes knowing foreign languages and
the languages of various other living beings by means of
the eye of discernment (pañña cakkhu).
Patibhana-patisambhida:
acumen with regard to expression; being fluent in making
explanations and quick-witted in debate; knowing the
most strategic way to express things.
All of these forms of
discernment can arise from training the mind to attain
fixed penetration. Vijja -- clear, open
knowledge, free from any further concealments; and
aloka -- brilliance, radiance streaming out in all
directions -- enable us to see the true nature of
sensations and mental acts, in accordance with our
powers of intuitive discernment.
Cognitive skill refers
to clear, uncanny knowledge that arises from the mind's
being firmly fixed in jhana. There are eight sorts --
(1)
Vipassana-ñana: clear comprehension of physical
sensations and mental acts (rupa, nama).
(2)
Manomayiddhi: psychic powers, influencing events
through the power of thought.
(3)
Iddhividhi: the ability to display powers, making
one's body appear in a variety of ways.
(4)
Dibba-cakkhu: clairvoyance.
(5)
Dibba-sota: clairaudience.
(6)
Cetopariya-ñana: the ability to know the mental
states of other people.
(7)
Pubbenivasanussati-ñana: the ability to remember
previous lives.
(8)
Asavakkhaya-ñ |