The
mental exercise known as meditation is found in all
religious systems. Prayer is a form of discursive
meditation, and in Hinduism the reciting of slokas
and mantras is employed to tranquilize the mind to a
state of receptivity. In most of these systems the
goal is identified with the particular psychic
results that ensue, sometimes very quickly; and the
visions that come in the semi-trance state, or the
sounds that are heard, are considered to be the
end-result of the exercise. This is not the case in
the forms of meditation practiced in Buddhism.
There is
still comparatively little known about the mind, its
functions and its powers, and it is difficult for
most people to distinguish between self-hypnosis,
the development of mediumistic states, and the real
process of mental clarification and direct
perception which is the object of Buddhist mental
concentration. The fact that mystics of every
religion have induced on themselves states wherein
they see visions and hear voices that are in
accordance with their own religious beliefs
indicates that their meditation has resulted only in
bringing to the surface of the mind and objectifying
the concepts already embedded in the deepest strata
of their subconscious minds. The Christian sees and
converses with the saints of whom he already knows;
the Hindu visualizes the gods of the Hindu pantheon,
and so on. When Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the
Bengali mystic, began to turn his thoughts towards
Christianity, he saw visions of Jesus in his
meditations, in place of his former eidetic images
of the Hindu Avatars.
The
practiced hypnotic subject becomes more and more
readily able to surrender himself to the suggestions
made to him by the hypnotiser, and anyone who has
studied this subject is bound to see a connection
between the mental state of compliance he has
reached and the facility with which the mystic can
induce whatever kind of experiences he wills himself
to undergo. There is still another possibility
latent in the practice of meditation; the
development of mediumistic faculties by which the
subject can actually see and hear beings on
different planes of existence, the Devalokas and the
realm of the unhappy ghosts, for example. These
worlds being nearest to our own are the more readily
accessible, and this is the true explanation of the
psychic phenomena of Western Spiritualism.
The
object of Buddhist meditation, however, is none of
these things. They arise as side-products, but not
only are they not its goal, but they are hindrances
which have to be overcome. The Christian who has
seen Jesus, or the Hindu who has conversed with
Bhagavan Krishna may be quite satisfied that he has
fulfilled the purpose of his religious life, but the
Buddhist who sees a vision of the Buddha knows by
that very fact that he has only succeeded in
objectifying a concept in his own mind, for the
Buddha after his Parinibbana is, in his own words,
no longer visible to gods or men.
There is
an essential difference, then, between Buddhist
meditation and concentration and that practiced in
other systems. The Buddhist embarking on a course of
meditation does well to recognize this difference
and to establish in his own conscious mind a clear
idea of what it is he is trying to do.
The
root-cause of rebirth and suffering is avijja
conjoined with and reacting upon tanha. These
two causes form a vicious circle; on the one hand,
concepts, the result of ignorance, and on the other
hand, desire arising from concepts. The world of
phenomena has no meaning beyond the meaning given to
it by our own interpretation.
When
that interpretation is conditioned by avijja,
we are subject to the state known as vipallasa,
or hallucination. Saρρa-vipallasa,
hallucination of perception; citta-vipallasa,
hallucination of consciousness, and
ditthi-vipallasa, hallucination of views, cause
us to regard that which is impermanent (anicca)
as permanent, that which is painful (dukkha)
as a source of pleasure, and that which is unreal
(anatta), or literally without any self
existence, as being a real, self-existing entity.
Consequently, we place a false interpretation on all
the sensory experiences we gain through the six
channels of cognition, that is, the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, sense of touch and mind cakkhu, sota,
ghana, jivha, kaya and mano (ayatana).
Physics, by showing that the realm of phenomena we
know through these channels of cognition does not
really correspond to the physical world known to
science, has confirmed this Buddhist truth. We are
deluded by our own senses. Pursuing what we imagine
to be desirable, an object of pleasure, we are in
reality only following a shadow, trying to grasp a
mirage. It is anicca, dukkha, anatta
impermanent, associated with suffering, an
insubstantial. Being so, it can only be the cause of
impermanence, suffering and insubstantiality, since
like begets like; and we ourselves, who chase the
illusion, are also impermanent, subject to suffering
and without any persistent ego-principle. It is a
case of a shadow pursuing a shadow.
The
purpose of Buddhist meditation, therefore, is to
gain more than an intellectual understanding of this
truth, to liberate ourselves from the delusion and
thereby put an end to both ignorance and craving. If
the meditation does not produce results tending to
this consummation results which are observable in
the character and the whole attitude to life it is
clear that there is something wrong either with the
system or with the method of employing it. It is not
enough to see lights, to have visions or to
experience ecstasy. These phenomena are too common
to be impressive to the Buddhist who really
understands the purpose of Buddhist meditation.
There are actual dangers in them which are apparent
to one who is also a student of psychopathology.
In the
Buddha's great discourse on the practice of
mindfulness, the Maha-satipatthana Sutta, both the
object and the means of attaining it are clearly set
forth. Attentiveness to the movements of the body,
to the ever-changing states of the mind, is to be
cultivated in order that their real nature should be
known. Instead of identifying these physical and
mental phenomena with the false concept of "self,"
we are to see them as they really are: movements of
a physical body, an aggregate of the four elements,
(mahabhutas) subject to physical laws of
causality on the one hand, and on the other, a flux
of successive phases of consciousness arising and
passing away in response to external stimuli. They
are to be viewed objectively, as though they were
processes not associated with ourselves but
belonging to another order of phenomena.
From
what can selfishness and egotism proceed if not from
the concept of "self" (sakkayaditthi)? If the
practice of any form of meditation leaves
selfishness or egotism unabated, it has not been
successful. A tree is judged by its fruits and a man
by his actions; there is no other criterion.
Particularly is this true in Buddhist psychology,
because the man is his actions. In the truest
sense they, or the continuity of kamma and vipaka
which they represent, are the only claim he can make
to any persistent identity, not only through the
different phases of this life but also from one life
to another. Attentiveness with regard to body and
mind serves to break down the illusion of self; and
not only that, it also cuts off craving and
attachment to external objects, so that ultimately
there is neither the "self" that craves nor any
object of craving. It is a long and arduous
discipline, and one that can only be undertaken in
retirement from the world and its cares.
Yet even
a temporary retirement, a temporary course of this
discipline, can bear good results in that it
establishes an attitude of mind which can be applied
to some degree in the ordinary situations of life.
Detachment, objectivity, is an invaluable aid to
clear thinking; it enables a man to sum up a given
situation without bias, personal or otherwise, and
to act in that situation with courage and
discretion. Another gift it bestows is that of
concentration the ability to focus the mind and
keep it steadily fixed on a single point
(ekaggata, or one-pointedness), and this is the
great secret of success in any undertaking. The mind
is hard to tame; it roams here and there restlessly
as the wind, or like an untamed horse, but when it
is fully under control, it is the most powerful
instrument in the whole universe. He who has
mastered his own mind is indeed master of the Three
Worlds.
In the
first place he is without fear. Fear arises because
we associate mind and body (nama-rupa) with
"self"; consequently any harm to either is
considered to be harm done to oneself. But he who
has broken down this illusion by realizing that the
five khandha process is merely the
manifestation of cause and effect, does not fear
death or misfortune. He remains equable alike in
success and failure, unaffected by praise or blame.
The only thing he fears is demeritorious action,
because he knows that no thing or person in the
world can harm him except himself, and as his
detachment increases, he becomes less and less
liable to demeritorious deeds. Unwholesome action
comes of an unwholesome mind, and as the mind
becomes purified, healed of its disorders, bad kamma
ceases to accumulate. He comes to have a horror of
wrong action and to take greater and greater delight
in those deeds that are rooted in alobha,
adosa, and amoha generosity,
benevolence and wisdom.
Anapana
Sati
One of
the most universally-applicable methods of
cultivating mental concentration is anapanasati,
attentiveness on the in-going and out-going breath.
This, unlike the Yogic systems, does not call for
any interference with the normal breathing, the
breath being merely used as a point on which to fix
the attention, at the tip of the nostrils. The
attention must not wander, even to follow the
breath, but must be kept rigidly on the selected
spot. In the initial stages it is advisable to mark
the respiration by counting, but as soon as it is
possible to keep the mind fixed without this
artificial aid, it should be discontinued and only
used when it is necessary to recall the attention.
As the
state of mental quiescence (samatha) is
approached, the breath appears to become fainter and
fainter, until it is hardly discernible. It is at
this stage that certain psychic phenomena appear,
which may at first be disconcerting. A stage is
reached when the actual bodily dukkha, the
sensation of arising and passing away of the
physical elements in the body, is felt. This is
experienced as a disturbance, but it must be
remembered that it is an agitation that is always
present in the body but we are unaware of it until
the mind becomes stabilized. It is the first direct
experience of the dukkha (suffering) which is
inherent in all phenomena the realization within
oneself of the first of the Four Noble Truths,
Dukkha Ariya Sacca. When that is passed there
follows the sensation of piti, rapturous joy
associated with the physical body. The teacher of
vipassana, however, is careful never to describe
to his pupil beforehand what he is likely to
experience, for if he does so, there is a strong
possibility that the power of suggestion will
produce a false reaction, particularly in those
cases where the pupil is very suggestible and
greatly under the influence of the teacher.
Devices
in Meditation
In
kammattana, it is permissible to use certain
devices, such as the earth or color kasina,
as focal points for the attention. A candle flame, a
hole in the wall, or some metal object can also be
used, and the method of using them is found in the
Pali texts and the Visuddhi-magga. In the
texts themselves it is to be noted that the Buddha
gave objects of meditation to disciples in
accordance with their individual characteristics,
and his unerring knowledge of the right technique
for each came from his insight into their previous
births. Similarly with recursive meditation, a
subject would be given which was easily
comprehensible to the pupil, or which served to
counteract some strong, unwholesome tendency in his
nature. Thus, to one attracted by sensual
indulgence, the Buddha would recommend meditation on
the impurity of the body, or the "cemetery
meditation." Here the object is to counterbalance
attraction by repulsion, but it is only a "skillful
means" to reach the final state, in which attraction
and repulsion both cease to exist. In the arahant
there is neither liking nor disliking: he regards
all things with perfect equanimity, as did Thera
Maha Moggallana when he accepted a handful of rice
from a leper.
Beads
The use
of the rosary in Buddhism is often misunderstood. If
it is used for the mechanical repetition of a set
formula, the repeating of so many phrases as an act
of piety, as in other religions, its value is
negligible. When it is used as means of holding the
attention and purifying the mind, however, it can be
a great help. One of the best ways of employing it,
because it calls for undivided attention, is to
repeat the Pali formula of the qualities of Buddha,
Dhamma and Sangha, beginning "Iti'pi so Bhagava
" with the first bead, starting again with the
second and continuing to the next quality: "Iti'pi
so Bhagava, Arahan " and so on until with the
last bead the entire formula is repeated from
beginning to end. This cannot be carried out
successfully unless the mind is entirely
concentrated on what is being done. At the same time
the recalling of the noble qualities of Buddha,
Dhamma and Sangha lifts the mind to a lofty plane,
since the words carry with them a meaning the
impresses itself on the pattern of the
thought-moments as they arise and pass away. The
value of this in terms of Abhidhamma psychology lies
in the wholesome nature of the cittakkhana,
or "consciousness-moment" in its uppada
(arising), thiti (static) and bhanga
(disappearing) phases. Each of these wholesome
cittakkhana contributes to the improvement of
the sankhara; or aggregate of tendencies; in
other words, it directs the subsequent
thought-moments into a higher realm and tends to
establish the character on that level.
Samatha
Bhavana
Samatha
bhavana,
the development of mental tranquillity with
concentration, is accompanied by three benefits; it
gives happiness in the present life, a favorable
rebirth, and the freedom from mental defilements
which is a prerequisite for attainment of insight.
In samatha the mind becomes like a still,
clear pool completely free from disturbance and
agitation, and ready to mirror on its surface the
nature of things as they really are, the aspect of
them which is hidden from ordinary knowledge by the
restlessness of craving. It is the peace and
fulfillment which is depicted on the features of the
Buddha, investing his images with a significance
that impresses even those who have no knowledge of
what it means. Such an image of the Buddha can
itself be a very suitable object of meditation, and
is, in fact, the one that most Buddhists
instinctively use. The very sight of the tranquil
image can calm and pacify a mind distraught with
worldly hopes and fears. It is the certain and
visible assurance of Nibbana.
Vipassana Bhavana
Vipassana bhavana
is realization of the three signs of being,
anicca, dukkha, and anatta, by
direct insight. These three characteristics,
impermanence, suffering and non-self, can be grasped
intellectually, as scientific and philosophical
truth, but this is not in itself sufficient to rid
the mind of egoism and craving. The final objective
lies on a higher level of awareness, the direct
"intuitional" plane, where it is actually
experienced as psychological fact. Until this
personal confirmation is obtained, the sphere of
sense perception (ayatana) and
sensory-responses remain stronger than the
intellectual conviction; the two function side by
side on different levels of consciousness, but it is
usually the sphere dominated by avijja which
continues to determine the course of life by
volitional action. The philosopher who fails to live
according to his philosophy is the most familiar
example of this incompatibility between theory and
practice. When the direct perception is obtained,
however, what was at its highest intellectual level
still merely a theory becomes actual knowledge, in
precisely the same way that we "know" when we are
hot or cold hungry or thirsty. The mind that has
attained it is established in the Dhamma, and
paρρa, wisdom, has taken the place of delusion.
Discursive meditation, such as that practiced in
Christian devotion, is entirely on the mental level,
and can be undertaken by anyone at any time. It
calls for no special preparation or conditions. For
the more advanced exercises of samatha and
vipassana, however, the strictest observance of
sila, the basic moral rules, becomes
necessary. These techniques are best followed in
seclusion, away from the impurities of worldly life
and under the guidance of an accomplished master.
Many people have done themselves psychic harm by
embarking on them without due care in this respect.
It is not advisable for anyone to experiment on his
own; those who are unable to place themselves under
a trustworthy teacher will do best to confine
themselves to discursive meditation. It cannot take
them to enlightenment but will benefit them morally
and prepare them for the next stage.
The
Practice of Metta Bhavana
Metta
bhavana
is the most universally beneficial form of
discursive meditation, and can be practiced in any
conditions. Thoughts of universal, undiscriminating
benevolence, like radio waves reaching out in all
directions, sublimate the creative energy of the
mind. With steady perseverance in metta bhavana
a point can be reached at which it becomes
impossible even to harbor a thought of ill-will.
True peace can only come to the world through minds
that are at peace, If people everywhere in the world
could be persuaded to devote half an hour daily to
the practice of metta bhavana, we should see
more real advance towards world peace and security
than international agreements will ever bring us. It
would be a good thing if, in this new era of the
Buddha Sasana, people of all creeds could be invited
to take part in a world-wide movement for the
practice of metta bhavana and pledge
themselves to live in accordance with the highest
tenets of their own religion, whatever it may be. In
so doing they would be paying homage to the Supreme
Buddha and to their own particular religious teacher
as well, for on this level all the great religions
of the world unite. If there is a common denominator
to be found among them, it is surely here, in the
teaching of universal loving-kindness which
transcends doctrinal differences and draws all being
together by the power of a timeless and
all-embracing truth.
The
classic formulation of metta as an attitude
of mind to be developed by meditation is found in
the Karaniya Metta Sutta (Sutta Nipata,
Khuddaka-patha) [See
appendix].
It is recommended that this sutta be recited before
beginning meditation, and again at its close, a
practice which is invariably followed in the
Buddhist countries. The verses of the sutta embody
the highest concept to which the thought of
loving-kindness can reach, and it serves both as a
means of self-protection against unwholesome mental
states and as a subject of contemplation (kammatthana).
It is
taught in Buddhism that the cultivation of
benevolence must begin with oneself. There is a
profound psychological truth in this, for no one who
hates or despises himself consciously or
unconsciously can feel true loving-kindness for
others. To each of us the self is the nearest
object; if one's attitude towards oneself is not a
wholesome one, the spring of love is poisoned at its
source. This does not mean that we should build up
an idealized picture of ourselves as an object of
admiration, but that, while being fully aware of our
faults and deficiencies, we should not condemn but
resolve to improve ourselves and cherish confidence
in our ability to do so.
Metta
bhavana,
therefore, begins with the thought: "May I be free
from enmity; may I be free from ill-will; may I be
rid of suffering; may I be happy."
This
thought having been developed, the next stage is to
apply it in exactly the same form and to the same
degree, to someone for whom one has naturally a
feeling of friendship.
In so
doing, two points must be observed: the object
should be a living person, and should not be one of
the opposite sex. The second prohibition is to guard
against the feeling of metta turning into its
"near enemy," sensuality. Those whose sensual
leanings have a different orientation must vary the
rule to suit their own needs.
When the
thought of metta has been developed towards a
friend, the next object should be someone towards
whom one has no marked feelings of like or dislike.
Lastly, the though of metta is to be turned
towards someone who is hostile. It is here that
difficulties arise. They are to be expected, and the
meditator must be prepared to meet and wrestle with
them. To this end, several techniques are described
in the Visuddhimagga and elsewhere. The first
is to think of the hostile personality in terms of
anatta impersonality. The meditator is
advised to analyze the hostile personality into its
impersonal components the body, the feelings, the
perceptions, the volitional formations and the
consciousness. The body, to begin with, consists of
purely material items: hair of the head, hair of the
body, skin, nails, teeth and so on. There can be no
basis for enmity against these. The feelings,
perceptions, volitional formations and consciousness
are all transitory phenomena, interdependent,
conditioned and bound up with suffering. They are
anicca, dukkha and anatta,
impermanent, fraught with suffering and void of
selfhood. There is no more individual personality in
them than there is in the physical body itself. So
towards them, likewise, there can be no real ground
for enmity.
If this
approach should prove to be not altogether
effective, there are others in which emotionally
counteractive states of mind are brought into play,
as for example regarding the hostile person with
compassion. The meditator should reflect: "As he (or
she) is, so am I. As I am, so is he. We are both
bound to the inexorable Wheel of Life by ignorance
and craving. Both of us are subject to the law of
cause and effect, and whatever evil we do, for that
we must suffer. Why then should I blame or call
anyone my enemy? Rather should I purify my mind and
wish that he may do the same, so that both of us may
be freed from suffering."
If this
thought is dwelt upon and fully comprehended,
feelings of hostility will be cast out. When the
thought of loving-kindness is exactly the same, in
quality and degree, for all these four objects
oneself, one's friend, the person toward whom one is
neutral, and the enemy the meditation has been
successful.
The next
stage is to widen and extend it. This process is a
threefold one: suffusing metta without
limitation, suffusing it with limitation, and
suffusing it in all of the ten directions, east,
west, north, south, the intermediate points, above
and below.
In
suffusing metta without limitation
(anodhiso-pharana), the meditator thinks of the
objects of loving-kindness under five heads: all
sentient beings; all things that have life; all
beings that have come into existence; all that have
personality; all that have assumed individual being.
For each of these groups separately he formulates
the thought: "May they be free from enmity; may they
be free from enmity; may they be free from ill will;
may they be rid of suffering; may they be happy. For
each object he specifies the particular group which
he is suffusing with metta: "May all sentient
beings be free from enmity, etc... May all things
that have life be free from enmity, etc." This
meditation embraces all without particular reference
to locality, and so is called "suffusing without
limitation."
In
suffusing metta with limitation (odhiso-pharana),
there are seven groups which form the objects of the
meditation. They are: all females; all males; all
Noble Ones (those who have attained any one of the
states of Sainthood); all imperfect ones; all Devas;
all human beings; all beings in states of woe. Each
of the groups should be meditated upon as described
above: "May all females be free from enmity, etc."
This method is called "suffusing metta with
limitation" because it defines the groups according
to their nature and condition.
Suffusing with metta all beings in the ten
directions is carried out in the same way. Directing
his mind towards the east, the meditator
concentrates on the thought: "May all beings in the
east be free from enmity; may they be free from ill
will; may they be rid of suffering; may they be
happy!" And so with the beings in the west, the
north, the south, the north-east, south-west,
north-west, south-east, above and below.
Lastly,
each of the twelve groups belonging to the unlimited
and limited suffusions of metta can be dealt
with separately for each of the ten directions,
using the appropriate formulas.
It is
taught that each of these twenty-two modes of
practicing metta bhavana is capable of being
developed up to the stage of a appana-samadhi,
that is, the concentration which leads to jhana, or
mental absorption. For this reason it is described
as the method for attaining release of the mind
through metta (metta cetovimutti). It
is the first of the Four Brahma Viharas, the sublime
states of which the Karaniya Metta Sutta: "Brahmam
etam viharam idhamahu" "Here is declared the
Highest Life."
Metta,
karuna, mudita, upekkha:
[see Nyanaponika Thera, The Four Sublime States,
Wheel 6.] loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic
joy and detachment, these four states of mind
represent the highest levels of mundane
consciousness. One who has attained to them and
dwells in them is impervious to the ills of life.
Like a god he moves and acts in undisturbed
serenity, armored against the blows of fate and the
uncertainty of worldly conditions. And the first of
them to be cultivated is metta, because it is
through boundless love that the mind gains its first
taste of liberation.
Appendix:
Loving-kindness as a Contemplation
[back]
Metta Sutta
From the Sutta Nipata, verses 143-52 (Spoken by
the Buddha)
What should be done by one skillful in good
So as to gain the State of Peace is this:
Let him be able, and upright, and straight.
Easy to speak to, gentle, and not proud,
Contented, too, supported easily.
With few tasks, and living very lightly,
His faculties serene, prudent, and modest,
Unswayed by the emotions of the clans;
And let him never do the slightest thing
That other wise men might hold blamable.
(And let him think:) "In safety and in bliss
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Whatever breathing beings there may be,
No matter whether they are frail or firm,
With none excepted, be they long or big
Or middle sized, or be they short or small
Or thick, as well as those seen or unseen,
Or whether they are dwelling far or near,
Existing or yet seeking to exist,
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Let no one work another one's undoing
Or even slight him at all anywhere;
And never let them wish each other ill
Through provocation or resentful thought."
And just as might a mother with her life
Protect the son that was her only child,
So let him then for every living thing
Maintain unbounded consciousness in being,
And let him too with love for all the world
Maintain unbounded consciousness in being
Above, below, and all round in between,
Untroubled, with no enemy or foe.
And while he stands or walks or while he sits
Or while he lies down, free from drowsiness,
Let him resolve upon this mindfulness
This is Divine Abiding here, they say.
But when he has no trafficking with views,
Is virtuous, and has perfected seeing,
And purges greed for sensual desires.
He surely comes no more to any womb.
The
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Bodhi
Leaves
No. 15
Copyright © 1986 Buddhist Publication Society
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Transcribed from the print edition in 1995 by Myra
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